HEREDITY  OF  SKIN  COLOR  IN 
NEGRO-WHITE  CROSSES 


BY 


CHARLES  B.  DAVENPORT 

Director,  Department  of  Experimental  Evolution  at  Cold  Spring  Harbor 


With  Appendix,  being  Abridgement  of  Field-notes,  Chiefly  op 
Florence  H.  Danielson,  Field  Worker,  Eugenics  Record  Office 


QK431 
D25 


WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

POBLiaHBD   BT   THE   CaRNEGIB   InSTITDTION   OF  WASHINGTON 

1913 


ahr  13. 11  HtU  iCibrara 


Nnrth  (Carolina  i^talp  MuioprHtlg 

QH431 
D25 


ijivrBSITV     O.M     HILL   LIBRARY 


S00385952  W 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  DATE 
INDICATED  BELOW  AND  IS  Slli- 
JECT  TO  AN  OVERDUE  FINE  AS 
POSTED  AT  THE  CIRCULATION 
DESK. 


MAY  3  1  1989 


^U6  '  2  1989 


DEC  0  4  1991 


JUL  u  6  200? 


100M/5-79 


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North  CarQJw^ftte  Library 
Kaleigh 


HEREDITY  OF  SKIN  COLOR  IN 
NEGRO-WHITE  CROSSES 


BY 


CHARLES  B.  DAVENPORT 

Director,  Department  of  Experimental  Evolution  at  Cold  Spring  Harbor 


With  Appendix,  being  Abridgement  of  Field-notes,  Chiefly  of 
Florence  H.  Danielson,  Field  Worker,  Eugenics  Record  Office 


WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

Published  by  the  Carnegie  Institution  of  Wasiunqton 

1918 


Carnegie  Institution  of  Washington,  Publication  No.  188 


Paper  No.  20  of  the  Station  for  Experimental 
Evolution  at  Cold  Spring  Harbor,  New  York 


PRESS  OF  J.  B.  LIPPIXCOTT  COMPANY 
PHILADELPHIA 


CONTENTS. 

Page 

A.  Statement  of  the  problem i 

B.  Method  of  investigation i 

C.  Evaluation  of  the  data 2 

D.  Ontogenetic  development  of  the  skin  color  of  the  negro 4 

E.  Results: 

I.  The  skin  color  of  Caucasians  in  Bermuda  and  Jamaica 8 

II.  Quantitative  determination  of  the  skin  color  of  pure-bred  negroes 8 

III.  Skin  color  of  the  children  of  a  negro  and  a  Caucasian  (the  Fi  generation). .  10 

IV.  Skin  color  of  the  children  of  two  mulattoes  (the  F2  generation) 11 

V.  Hypothesis 12 

VI.  Test  of  the  hypothesis 15 

VII.  Is  there  a  sex-linkage  or  sex-dimorphism  in  skin  color? 24 

VIII.   Do  the  children  "take  after"  the  mother  and  father  equally? 25 

IX.  Selection  of  mates — "grading  up"  to  white 25 

X.  The  agreement  of  the  hypothesis  with  popular  observation  and  nomencla- 
ture   27 

XI.  The  yellow  element  in  the  skin  color 28 

XII.  The  "fixed  white,"  the  "pass  for  white,"  and  the  "white  by  law" 28 

XIII.  Reversion  to  black  skin  color 29 

F.  Discussion  of  inheritance  of  traits  associated  with  skin  color: 

I.  Eye  color 32 

II.  Hair  color 35 

III.  Hair  form 39 

G.  Correlation  of  characteristics  in  hybrids 44 

I.  Correlation  between  the  color  of  the  skin  and  of  the  hair  in  the  F2  gen- 
eration    44 

II.  Correlation  between  color  of  the  skin  and  form  of  the  hair  in  the  Fi  gen- 
eration    45 

H.  Fecundity  of  hybrids 46 

I.     Summary  of  conclusions 46 

K.  Literature  cited 47 

Appendix  A: 

I.  Bermudian  families 49 

II.  Jamaican  families 71 

III.  Louisianian  families 102 

Appendix  B.  Social  data  concerning  miscegenation 105 


rn  CAPOLTN.A  STATE  I 


HEREDITY  OF  SKIN  COLOR  IN  NEGRO-WHITE  CROSSES. 

By  Charles  B.  Davenport. 


A.  STATEMENT  OF  THE  PROBLEIVI. 

Two  years  ago  (1910)  Mrs.  Davenport  and  I  published  some 
measurements  made  on  the  color  of  the  skin  of  descendants  of  matings 
between  negroes  and  Caucasians;  and  we  concluded  that,  in  opposi- 
tion to  current  belief,  our  data  afforded  evidence  that  there  is  segre- 
gation in  skin  color.  We  concluded  that,  while  skin  color  is  inherited 
in  typical  fashion,  the  pigmentation  of  the  full-blooded  negro  is  not 
dependent  on  two  {i.e.,  the  duplex)  determiners,  "but  perhaps  a  myriad 
of  them."  Lang  (i9ii,*p.  122)  cites  these  results  with  approval  and 
brings  them  in  line  with  other  studies  in  which  the  presence  of  several 
factors  for  a  single  character  is  indicated,  but  he  would  quer>'  our 
statement  "that  offspring  are  rarely  darker  than  the  darker  parent." 
This  statement  merely  summarized  the  empirical  result  obtained  from 
the  four  quantitatively  studied  families  and  was  not  in  complete 
harmony  with  the  theoretical  explanation  offered — a  disaccord  upon 
which  we  laid  no  emphasis  because  our  quantitative  data  were  so 
limited.    Our  concluding  sentence  was  as  follows : 

All  studies  indicate  that  blonds  lack  one  or  more  units  that  brunets 
possess;  that  the  negro  skin  possesses  still  additional  units;  that  individuals 
with  the  heavier  skin  pigmentation  may  have  slight  pigmentation  covered 
over — hypostatic,  evidence  of  this  condition  appearing  in  the  light  offspring 
of  such  hybrids  in  the  second  or  third  generation;  and  that  first-generation 
hybrids  frequently  show,  somatically,  a  color  grade  less  than  that  which  they 
carry  potentially  and  may  segregate  in  their  germ-cells. 

The  need  for  additional  data  was,  however,  recognized  as  great. 

B.  METHOD  OF  INVESTIGATION. 

The  difficulty  of  getting  the  desired  data  is  considerable,  especially 
in  our  Southern  States,  where  all  matings  of  blacks  and  whites  are 
illegal  and  the  genealogies  of  "colored"  people  are  usually  either  diffi- 
cult to  obtain  or  else  unreliable.  After  having  discussed  the  matter 
with  persons  of  experience  in  other  countries,  as  well  as  in  the  Southern 
States,  it  was  decided  that  the  best  available  field  for  study  would  be 
the  islands  of  Bermuda  and  Jamaica.  Funds  were  provided  to  pay 
the  salary  and  expense  of  a  field  worker  to  collect  the  data,  through 
the  generosity  of  Mrs.  E.  H.  Harriman.    Science  is  greatly  indebted 


*  These  numbers  refer  to  the  particular  paper  of  the  author  as  listed  in  the  "Litera- 
ture cited,"  p.  48. 

1 


2  HEREDITY   OF    SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO- WHITE   CROSSES. 

to  this  lady  in  this  instance,  as  in  so  many  others.  Miss  Florence  H. 
Danielson.'who  had  already  spent  an  entire  year  in  field  work  upon 
pauper  families  in  rural  districts  and  had  been  markedly  successful 
in  her  work,  was  selected  for  the  study.  In  her  instructions  emphasis 
was  laid  upon  two  points:  (i)  to  ascertain  as  surely  as  possible  the 
actual  parentage;  (2)  to  get  a  quantitative  determination  of  the  skin 
color  for  as  many  as  possible  of  the  children,  direct  ancestors,  and 
immediate  collaterals.  This  resulted  in  a  lot  of  data  that,  with  few 
exceptions,  give  internal  evidence  of  trustworthiness.  Data  concern- 
ing a  few  families  in  Louisiana  were  supplied  by  special  studies  made 
by  Miss  Susan  K.  Gillean,  of  New  Orleans. 

The  color  determinations  were  made  in  the  following  manner: 
Miss  Danielson  visited  the  homes  of  the  colored  people  and  obtained 
all  of  the  genealogical  data  that  could  be  furnished.  Then  the  sleeve 
was  rolled  up  to  above  the  elbow  and  a  part  of  the  skin  that  is  usually 
covered  from  the  sunlight  was  thus  exposed.  The  arm  was  placed  on 
the  table  by  a  good  light  and  a  Bradley  color-top  was  spun  close  to  the 
arm  and  the  disks  adjusted  until  they  matched,  when  spun,  the  color 
of  the  skin.  Various  combinations  of  black  (N),  red  (R),  yellow  (Y), 
and  white  (W)  gave  a  close  approximation  to  the  skin  color. 

Acknowledgment  must  be  made  of  the  courtesy  with  which  our 
field  worker  was  everywhere  received.  The  people  acquiesced  in 
friendly  fashion  to  the  novel  request  to  allow  their  skin  color  to  be 
measured;  and  in  some  cases  leading  persons  in  the  community  inter- 
ested themselves  in  securing  an  introduction  to  the  homes  which 
furnished  the  desired  combinations  of  ancestry.  Special  acknowledg- 
ment is  made  of  courtesies  extended  by  Prof.  E.  L.  Mark  for  introduc- 
tions that  were  of  great  service  in  Bermuda;  to  Sir  Sidney  Olivier, 
governor  of  Jamaica;  to  Rev.  and  Mrs.  Reinke,  Mr.  Frank  Cundall, 
secretary  of  the  Jamaica  Institute,  and  Mr.  Fred.  Meyer.  In  the  com- 
pany of  Dr.  Alfred  G.  Mayer,  whose  introductions  were  of  great  value, 
and  of  Miss  Danielson,  the  writer  visited  Jamaica,  February  16  to  23, 
191 2,  to  look  over  the  ground  and  to  secure  the  co-operation  of  influen- 
tial persons  in  our  investigation.  Assistance  was  everywhere  cordiall}'- 
offered  and  given.  The  Trustees  of  the  Carnegie  Institution  of  Wash- 
ington afforded  me  the  opportunity  to  make  this  study  at  Jamaica. 

C.  EVALUATION  OF  THE  DATA. 

Two  points  in  this  study  deserve  critical  consideration:  First,  the 
value  of  the  determinations  by  the  color-top ;  second,  the  value  of  the 
alleged  relationships  in  the  families. 

The  color-top,  made  by  the  Milton  Bradley  Company,  Springfield, 
Massachusetts,  is  a  little  device  for  expressing  color  quantitatively. 
Disks  of  standard  black,  red,  yellow,  and  white  are  arranged  so  that 
var>'ing  proportions  of  each  are  exposed  as  sectors  of  the  whole  circle. 


EVALUATION   OF   THE   DATA.  3 

When  the  top  is  spun  the  colors  blend.  By  varying  the  proportions 
of  the  sectors  (with  a  small  dissecting  forceps)  the  color  of  the  blend 
is  altered.  Of  the  delicacy  of  the  method  there  is  no  question;  in  a 
good  light  the  proportions  N  55,  R  40,  W  5  can  be  readily  distinguished 
from  N  53,  R  42,  W  5.  That  two  persons  who  have  had  some  experi- 
ence with  the  tops  will  form  closely  similar  judgments  I  am  assured 
by  various  tests  that  I  have  made;  but  in  these  studies  all  measure- 
ments were  made  by  Miss  Danielson,  except  those  on  the  five  Lousiana 
families,  made  by  Miss  Gillean.  It  is  true  that  the  skin  color  is  not 
homogeneous — one  has  to  avoid  places  where  veins  run  near  the  sur- 
face. A  real  difficulty  occurs  in  securing  proper  illumination.  There 
is  a  difference  between  skin  and  the  colored  papers  in  light-absorbing 
properties,  and  it  is  possible  that  the  determinations  that  had  some- 
times to  be  made  near  sunset  upon  men  after  they  had  returned  home 
from  work  are  not  closely  comparable  with  the  determinations  made 
in  broad  daylight.  Determinations  made  under  imperfectly  satisfac- 
tory conditions  of  light  are  specially  indicated.  Of  all  errors  the  most 
likely  is  the  substitution  of  red  by  black  or  vice  versa.  In  a  poor  light 
the  difference  between  the  proportions  N54,  R34,  Y6,  W6,  and 
N  48,  R  40,  Y  6,  W  6  is  not  striking;  no  doubt  an  error  as  great  as 
this  may  have  crept  into  the  determinations  made  in  poor  Hght. 

The  question  of  the  actual  paternity  of  our  fraternities  offers 
extraordinary  difficulties.  Even  in  Jamaica,  whose  orderliness  much 
impresses  the  visitor,  the  percentage  of  illegitimacy  is  given  at  60  per 
cent  from  1855  to  1895.  In  the  province  of  St.  Thomas  the  rate  for  one 
year  was  72  per  cent  of  illegitimacy  (Livingstone,  1900,  pp.  113,  209). 

The  fact  that  there  has  been  no  decrease  during  the  last  twenty  years  is 
cited  as  a  proof  of  the  invincible  unchastity  of  the  race  ....  Chastity 
is  considered  unnatural. 

Irregular  as  conditions  now  are,  they  were  much  worse  50  years 
ago.    Livingstone  writes  of  this  (p.  94) : 

The  condition  of  the  young  was  sad  in  the  extreme.  Few  became  moral 
members  of  society.  As  very  children  they  lived  together,  producing  children, 
and  in  many  cases  boys  of  twelve  consorted  with  more  than  one  girl  of  the 
same  age The  father  of  a  child  was  seldom  known. 

One  can  see  that  conditions  thus  portrayed  increase  greatly  the 
difficulty  of  our  study.  Nevertheless,  it  does  not  militate  against  the 
fact  that  there  are  to-day  colored  families  in  which  a  man  and  a  woman 
(whether  married  or  not)  are  mutually  faithful,  and  other  cases  where, 
on  careful  inquiry,  the  admission  is  made  of  the  illegitimacy  of  some 
one  child,  or  the  fact  that  he  had  a  different  father  from  the  others. 
On  the  whole,  families  whose  mothers  had  elevated  ideals  of  chastity 
were  selected,  so  that  the  data  are  generally  reliable;  in  case  the  truth  is 
not  told  the  condition  of  the  eyes  and  hair  in  the  irregular  child  some- 


4  HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

times  reveals  the  deception.    We  shall  have  occasion  to  call  attention 
to  some  of  these  cases  where  the  putative  father  is  not  the  real  father. 

D.  ONTOGENETIC  DEVELOPMENT  OF  THE  SKIN  COLOR 

OF  THE  NEGRO. 

In  making  comparisons  of  skin  color  a  certain  difficulty  is  intro- 
duced by  the  fact  that  the  color  of  the  skin  is  not  constant  throughout 
life  in  the  same  individual.  The  variations  due  to  the  direct  action  of 
the  sun  (tanning)  were  largely  eliminated  by  making  measurements 
upon  a  covered  part  of  the  arm.  This  was  possible  inasmuch  as  both 
children  and  adults  in  both  Bermuda  and  Jamaica  usually  wear  clothing. 

Variations  due  to  age  have  to  be  carefully  considered.  It  is  pretty 
generally  agreed  by  accoucheurs,  both  in  Africa  and  in  the  Southern 
States,  that  the  negro  baby  is  nearly  white  at  birth.  Some  of  this 
testimony  may  be  cited. 

Pruner-Bey  (i860,  1864)  stated  that  it  was  sometimes  impossible  to 
distinguish  a  new-bom  negro  from  a  new-bom  white,  by  examining  skin 
color  only. 

Simonot  (1862),  stationed  at  Senegal,  says  that  the  negroes  of  Yoloff  de 
Saint  Louis  are  the  blackest  that  he  knows.  At  birth  the  infant  of  this  race  is  of 
a  rose  color  lightly  accentuated  with  a  bistre  tint,  which  is  the  representative 
at  this  early  age  of  the  future  pigmentation  and  enables  one  to  distinguish 
it  from  a  European  infant;  but  it  is  not  always  easy  to  distinguish  it  from 
certain  crosses  ....  After  some  hours  have  elapsed  the  rose  tint  is  obliterated 
and  at  the  same  time  the  bistre  shade  becomes  more  pronounced,  approaching- 
more  and  more  to  the  black.  .  .  .  Only  after  several  days  has  the  skin  ac- 
quired a  definitely  black  color  and  this  grows  darker  until  the  end  of  the  first 
year  at  least  and  does  not  acquire  its  maximum  intensity  until  puberty.  The 
color  is  acquired  more  promptly  if  the  infant  is  exposed  to  the  sunlight. 

Brodnax  (1900),  who  has  particularly  attended  to  this  matter  in  our 
southern  states,  writes:  "Twenty  cases  of  new-bom  negro  infants  have  been 
examined  by  me  per  year  and  I  have  never  yet  seen  a  dark-colored  infant  at 
birth.  They  are  of  a  tallowy  white,  while  the  white  infant  is  of  a  clear, 
bright  pink.  It  makes  no  matter  how  black  or  white  (mulatto)  the  parents 
are,  the  scrotum  and  raphe  are  of  a  dark  brown." 

Schiller-Tietz  (1901)  concludes,  from  the  accounts  of  travelers  and 
sojourners  in  Africa,  that  the  negro  child  is  born,  if  not  distinctly  white,  at 
least  of  a  clear  color,  and  only  after  a  longer  or  shorter  time  after  birth  acquires 
the  dark-brown  color  of  its  race.  He  adds :  "  The  color  is  darker  after  eating, 
at  a  higher  temperature,  during  exercise,  in  consequence  of  psychical  disturb- 
ances (embarrassment,  shame),  and,  in  general,  whenever  the  blood  pressure 
is  increased  in  the  skin  capillaries."  He  concludes  that  the  attainment  of 
full  skin  color,  even  in  Africa,  varies  from  6  weeks  to  3  years,  but  occasionally 
takes  only  a  few  days. 

Studies  by  Thomson  (1891)  and  others  show  that  the  formation  of  melanic 
pigment  has  already  begun  at  the  base  of  the  hairs  in  the  fetus  at  the  age  of 
S  months. 

At  the  Memorial  Hospital,  Richmond,  Va.,  a  male  child  was  ex- 
amined 6  days  after  birth.     His  mother  and  father  were  both  dark- 


ONTOGENETIC   DEVELOPMENT   OF    SKIN   COLOR   OF    NEGRO.       5 

colored  (say  N  45  per  cent).  The  skin  was  not  measured,  but  is  esti- 
mated at  N  25  per  cent.  The  physician  who  attended  the  mother 
states  that  it  was  much  Hghter  at  birth.  The  scrotum,  a  hne  about 
2  mm.  broad  running  in  the  mid-ventral  line  in  the  pubic  region  nearly 
to  the  umbilicus,  and  the  areolae  around  the  nipples  were  twice  as  dark 
(say  N  50  per  cent).  On  this  child  the  lanugo,  which  was  abundant 
on  the  forehead  and  back,  was  dark  brown,  as  were  also  the  head  hair, 
eyebrows,  and  eyelashes.  The  hair  of  the  head  was  not  so  dark  as  that 
of  the  mother.  While  the  hair  of  both  parents  formed  a  close  coil  (of 
about  5  mm.  diameter),  that  of  the  child  was  only  wa\n>\  The  super- 
intendent of  the  Good  Samaritan  Hospital  (for  colored  persons)  at 
Columbia,  South  Carolina,  where  many  full-blooded  negresses  are 
confined,  stated  that  the  hair  is  always  nearly  straight  at  birth,  and 
that  the  straight  hair  ma}'  be  seen  at  the  extremity  of  the  curved  hair 
when,  as  happens  within  a  few  weeks,  the  close  curl  makes  its  appear- 
ance. This  has  been  observed  by  Pruner-Bey  (1861)  and  by  Bloch 
and  Vigier  (1904).  The  same  superintendent  states  that  the  color  of 
the  transverse  helix  of  the  external  ear  (pinna)  acquired  its  permanent 
pigmentation  earlier  than  the  rest  of  the  skin  of  the  face ;  and  this  fact 
was  strikingly  shown  in  the  6-day  child  seen  at  the  hospital,  and  has 
been  repeatedly  confirmed  since. 

In  an  infant,  7  days  old,  at  the  Memorial  Hospital,  Richmond, 
whose  mother's  father  was  half  Indian — the  rest  of  the  mixture  being 
chiefly  if  not  wholly  negro — the  skin  color  had  much  more  red  than  in 
the  child  described  at  the  beginning  of  the  preceding  paragraph,  and 
the  hair  of  the  head  was  ver>'  dark  brown ;  the  lanugo  was  very  abun- 
dant on  the  back  and  quite  black. 

At  the  Bellevue  Hospital,  New  York  City,  a  child  was  examined 
(about  48  hours  after  birth)  whose  mother  was  the  daughter  of  a  white 
man  and  a  mulatto  woman — her  owti  skin  color  probably  at  least  40 
per  cent  N.  The  father  of  the  infant  was  darker  than  the  mother.  The 
infant  had  already  at  least  20  per  cent  N  (estimated)  on  the  upper 
arm,  but  the  exposed  hands  were  darker,  while  the  soles  and  palms 
were  light.  The  skin  of  the  scrotum  and  penis  were  very  dark  (say 
50  per  cent  N),  and  the  areolae  and  pubic  line  were  much  darker  than 
the  surrounding  skin.  There  were  slight  inequalities  in  the  density 
of  pigmentation  in  different  areas  of  the  buttocks.  The  hair  was  nearly 
straight,  the  lanugo  and  head  hair  dark  brown.  In  a  female  child  of 
18  days,  from  a  brown-skinned  woman  and  her  lighter  husband,  the 
hair  was  coming  in  curly,  though  straight  on  its  ends.  Over  the  back 
were  bluish-black  patches,  a  prominent  one  at  the  upper  end  of  the 
sacrum  (about  4  by  8  cm.),  and  others  lying  irregularly  over  the  back. 
These  correspond  in  position  and  general  appearance  \\*ith  the  sacral 
spots  described  for  the  Japanese.  These  sacral  spots  have  been  studied 
histologically  by  Adachi  (1903),  who  finds  them  to  be  areas  where  a 


6  HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN    NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

relatively  great  amount  of  pigment  is  formed  in  the  corium;  and  this 
excess  disappears  as  the  formation  of  pigment  in  the  epidermis  is 
accelerated. 

At  the  Sloane  Hospital  in  New  York  City  seven  colored  babies, 
2  to  20  days  old,  were  examined.  The  youngest,  of  fairly  dark  ancestry, 
was  already  becoming  pigmented  and  his  skin  color  gave  N  15,  R  41, 
Y  2,  W  42.  One  of  the  others,  at  4  days,  had  feet  that  were  pink  and 
quite  like  those  of  a  white  infant,  though  the  forehead  (the  part  most 
exposed  to  the  Hght)  had  about  25  per  cent  N.  Excepting  one  prac- 
tically "white"  child,  all  had  spots  on  the  sacrum  varying  in  size 
from  a  centimeter  to  a  third  of  the  whole  surface  of  the  back.  All 
children  had  nearly  straight  hair,  often  standing  erect  on  top  of  the 
head,  but  a  colored  infant  was  seen  whose  hair  at  birth  formed  close 
coils. 

A  series  of  measurements  can  be  given  of  the  skin  color  of  a  baby 
both  of  whose  parents  are,  so  far  as  known,  of  straight  negro  origin. 
These  were  taken  by  the  physician  in  charge*  of  the  maternity  division 
of  the  Lincoln  Hospital,  New  York  City.  The  baby  was  born  at  2  a.m., 
February  16,  1913;  first  observed  at  2  p.m.  of  the  same  day.  At  the 
time  of  the  first  observation  light  brown  lanugo  was  plentiful  on  the 
back;  the  head  hair  was  black  and  quite  straight.  The  deepest  pig- 
mentation was  on  the  forehead  and  the  descending  helix  of  the  external 
ear.  There  was  a  sacral  spot,  65  by  70  mm.,  and  a  smaller,  darker, 
slightly  purplish  area  just  above  the  anal  fold,  35  by  25  mm.  and  with 
the  color  formula  ofN58,R3i,Y4,W7.  These  lumbar  spots  faded 
slightly  in  the  next  10  days.  The  color  of  the  forearm  was  determined 
on  successive  days  and  the  following  formulae  obtained:  February  16, 
2  p.m.,  N37,  R38,  Y7,  W18;  February  17,  2  p.m.,  N  40,  R42,  Y5, 
W13;  February  18,  2  p.m.,  N43,  R42,  Y3,  W12;  February  19,  2  p.m., 
N  45,  R  42,  Y  3,  W  10;  February  22,  2  p.m.,  N  50,  R  40,  Y  2,  W  8. 

In  a  colored  baby,  partly  white,  beginning  14  hours  after  birth 
with  a  formula  N  37,  R  36,  Y  3,  W  24,  by  the  end  of  7  days  the  skin 
color  was  N  40,  R  44,  Y  4,  W  12.  In  the  latter  case  the  development 
of  pigment  was  much  slower  and  would  probably  not  go  so  far. 

The  presence  of  sacral  spots  in  mulattoes  has  been  recorded  by 
Lehmann-Nitsche  (1904)  and  by  Herrman  (1907).  The  latter  states 
that  they  were  distinct  in  24  per  cent  of  the  infants  seen  at  the  Vander- 
bilt  Clinic,  New  York  City.  So  far  as  my  experience  went,  practically 
all  negro  infants  showed  the  spots. 

In  order  to  find  what  allowance,  if  any,  must  be  made  in  our 
statistics  for  age,  the  determinations  of  the  percentage  of  the  black 
component  have  been  grouped  into  classes  as  follows:  under  i  year; 
I  year  and  up  to  (but  not  including)  2  years;  2  years  and  up  to  (but 

*Dr.  Nathan  B.  Eddy. 


ONTOGENETIC    DEVELOPMENT   OF   SKIN    COLOR   OF    NEGRO.      7 

not  including)  5  years;  5  to  9;  10  to  19;  20  to  39;  40  to  59.  Finally, 
for  reasons  that  will  be  discussed  more  fully  later,  the  measurements 
taken  at  Bermuda  and  at  Jamaica  are  averaged  separately  (table  i). 

Table  i. — Average  grade  of  N  in  skin  color  of  various  negro-white  crosses,  by  age  classes. 


Age. 

Under 
I  year. 

I  to  1.9 
years. 

2  to  4.9 
years. 

5   to  9 
years. 

10  to  19 
years. 

20  to  39 
years. 

40  to  59 
years. 

Bermuda  (fig.  i). 
Jamaica  (fig.  2) .  . 

p.  ct. 
16.3 

IS-O 

p.  ct. 

(18.8) 

16.6 

p.  ct. 

214 
18.5 

P.ct. 
27.0 
21.3 

p.  ct. 
28.8 
20.9 

p.  ct. 
28.3 
18.0 

p.  ct. 
21.6 

....      1 

In  table  i  the  second  Bermuda  entry  has  been  smoothed  by  the 
exclusion  of  five  dark  sisters  who,  belonging  to  an  exceptionally  dark 
strain,  have  rendered  the  average  unduly  high.  The  number  of  meas- 
urements from  which  the  averages  were  obtained  varies  for  the  different 


30 

■■"' 

25 

ft 

0 

J 

■i  20 
.5 

2 

!  per  cent  of 
01 

to 
2 

^  10 

] 

5 

n 

0      10     20     30     40     W     60 
Age.  years 

Fig.  I. — Polygon  showing  graphically  the 
varying  percentages  of  N  in  skin  color 
for  each  age  of  life  (Bermuda). 


20 

i— 

S  15 

c 

•i 

r 

2 

V.    10 

c 

0. 

a> 

2    " 

< 

n 

0      10     20     30 
Age.  years 


40 


Fig.  2. — Polygon  showing  graph- 
icxlly  the  varying  percentages 
of  N  in  skin  color  for  each  age 
of  life  (Jamaica). 


classes  from  over  100  down  to  11.  It  appears  that  the  proportion  of 
black  in  the  skin  increases  to  about  the  age  of  10  or  12  years  and  then 
slowly  diminishes,  a  fact  to  which  Simonot  (1862,  p.  147)  called  atten- 
tion. On  careful  consideration  of  these  facts  it  seemed  desirable  to 
exclude  from  further  consideration  (except  as  indicated)  all  measure- 
ments made  on  individuals  under  the  age  of  2  years,  on  the  ground 


8  HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN    NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

that  such  individuals  have  not  yet  gained  their  full  pigmentation ;  that 
in  them  melanic  pigmentation  is  in  an  embryonic  condition. 

E.  RESULTS. 
I.  The  Skin  Color  of  Caucasians  in  Bermuda  and  Jamaica. 

(A)  Bermuda. 

Case  I  (i:  463;  V,  7  *). — A  woman  whose  father  was  English  and  mother 
Portuguese,  both  from  Antigua.  Her  hair  is  straight  and  black,  com- 
plexion oHve.    Skin  color  N  8,  R31,  Y  22,  W39. 

Case  2  (1:470;  II,  2). — ^A  woman  of  45  years,  bom  in  London,  blue  eyes, 
straight  yellow  hair.    Skin  color  N  5,  R  34,  Y  15,  W  46. 

Case  3  (i:  492;  II,  2). — A  woman  with  hazel  (i.e.,  blue  plus  a  Httle  brown) 
iris,  straight,  medium  brown  hair.    Skin  color  N  7,  R  30,  Y  15,  W  48. 

Case  4  (i:554;III,  5). — An  Englishman  with  clear  blue  eyes,  straight  medium 
brown  hair  and  sandy  mustache.    Skin  color  N  5,  R  29,  Y  27,  W  39. 

(B)   J.^MAICA. 

Case  I  (i :  685 ;  II,  6). — Son  of  an  Irishman  and  a  very  fair  woman,  probably 
no  negro  blood;  a  native  Jamaican.  Light  brown  eyes,  red  hair.  Skin 
color  No,  R32,  Y  20,  W  48.  This  happens  to  be  an  exceptionally 
light  person,  entirely  without  melanic  pigmentation. 

Note. — The  writer's  wrist,  somewhat  tanned  during  the  summer, 

isN8,  R50,  Y9,  W33- 

Thus  the  untanned  skin-color  formula  of  the  Caucasian  contains 

from  o  per  cent  to  7  per  cent  black,  and  probably,  in  brunets,  as  much 

as  10  per  cent  black. 

II.    Quantitative   Determination   of  the   Skin   Color   of   Pure-bred 

Negroes. 

In  our  study  of  the  normal  color  of  the  "pure-bred"  negro  we 
first  run  upon  the  complication  that  the  native  Africans,  even  of  the 
Slave  Coast,  differ  much  in  skin  color.  Thus  the  Fellatahs  of  the 
Soudan  vary  from  a  light  brown  to  a  dark  brown,  approximating  the 
color  of  the  negro.  The  Krumen  of  the  Liberia  coast  vary  from  black 
to  3"ellow.  The  Alandingos  of  French  Guinea  and  the  Jolofs  of  Senegal 
are  dark  brown.  The  Yorubas  of  southern  Nigeria  are  also  dark  brown, 
but  not  so  deeply  pigmented  as  the  Mandingos  (Dowd,  1907,  pp.  79- 
83).  This  variation  in  skin  color  of  races,  all  of  which  are  represented 
in  the  area  where  our  studies  were  made,  complicates  our  problem, 
or  would  seem  to  do  so  were  it  not  true  that  we  can  rely  upon  hybridiza- 
tion to  point  the  way  out  of  any  such  complexity.  There  can  be  no 
doubt  that  the  variation  of  skin  color  in  a  single  tribe  of  Africans 
proves  the  existence  in  it  of  various  heterozygous  or  mixed  types, 
resulting  from  hybridization.  We  can  not  know  the  skin  color  of  the 
negro  ancestors  of  any  of  our  families  precisely,  and  it  is  not  very  im- 
portant that  we  should. 

*  This  number  refers  to  the  sheet  and  individual  of  the  original  record  as  preserved 
in  the  Eugenics  Record  OflBce. 


RESULTS. 


Various  measurements  were  made  in  Bermvida,  in  Jamaica,  and 
in  Louisiana  of  the  skin  color  of  persons  reputed  to  be  of  pure  negro 
blood.    They  are  as  follows: 

Table  2. — Quantitative  determinations  of  the  skin  color  of  pure-bred  negroes. 

I.  BERMUD.\. 


1        Reference  No.* 

Sex. 

Skin-color  formula. 

!    B.2 

B.  3  I 

Female 

Female.  .  . 

N  75.  R  13,  Y  3.  W  10. 

N  71,  R  18.  Y?,  W9. 

N78.  R8,  Y  5.  Wo. 

N  77.  R  IS.  Y  3.  W  s.     Typical  kinky  hair.     No  known  white 

blood. 
N  so,  R  2S.  Y  8.  W  17.     A  typical  brown-skinned  woman  all  of 

whose  people  are  brown. 
N  75.  R  18.  Y  4.  W  3.    A  negro  woman  all  of  whose  people  are 

dark;  has  typical  negro  features. 
N  45.  R  40.  Y  7.  W  8.    All  of  her  ancestors  were  negroes.    She 

has  typical  negro  hair  and  features. 

B.  6  II.  I 

Female 

Female 

Female 

Female 

Female 

B.  7  I 

B.  16  II.  6 

B.  17  I 

B.  29  I 

a.  JAMAICA. 

J.  3.  I 

J.  12. I 

J.  7.1 

J. 13. I 

J.14.I 

I.  24.  I 

J,    20,    I 

Female 

Female 

Female 

Female 

Female 

Female 

Female 

N  s8,  R  29,  Y  6.  W  7.     A  pure-black  woman. 
N  60,  R  29,  Y  6,  W  5.     Typical  negro  hair  and  features.                  1 
N  46,  R  39,  Y  8,  W  7.     Pure-black,  with  typical  eyes  and  hair 
N  52,  R  32,  Y  8,  W  8.     A  pure-black  woman.                                       ' 
N  47.  R  37.  Y  12,  W  4.    Ancestors  were  negroes  as  far  back  as    | 
she  knows;  has  dark  brown  eves  and  curly  hair.                               i 
N  54.  R  35.  Y  6,  W  5.     A  pure-black  woman.                                       i 
N  37.  R  47.  Y  13.  W  3.    All  of  the  ancestors,  on  both  the  father's    1 
and  the  mother's  side,  so  far  as  known,  are  colored.    She  has 
typical  hair  and  eyes.     Note  that  the  deficiency  in  black  is  en- 
tirely compensated  by  increased  red — a  negress  of  high  color. 
This  is  a  highly  exceptional  reading  and,  owing  to  possible 
errors  of  field  work,  too  much  stress  must  not  be  laid  on  it. 

3.  LOUISIANA. 

L.2.I 

[L.3,1 

L.  4.  I 

L.  6,  I 

Male 

Female 

Female 

Female 

N  43.  R  30,  Y  12,  W  IS.     A  full-blooded  negro.     Hair  kinky. 

lips  thick,  but  nose  fairly  high. 
N  45,  R  32,  Y  13.  W  10.     A  full-blooded  negress  with  a  wide, 

flat  nose,  woolly  hair,  and  thick  lips. 
N  40,  R  32,  Y  13.  W  IS-    A  full-blooded  negress  with  flat,  broad 

nose,  woolly  hair,  and  thick  lips.                                                         1 
N  70.  R  28.5.  Y  I,  W  0.5.     A  full-blooded  negress.  according  to    ! 

her  own  statement.    She  has  typical  negro  features,  flat  nose, 

thick  lips,  woolly,  kinky  hair. 

♦The  "Reference  No."  in  this  and  following  tables  refers  to  the  case  number  and  generation  of  the 
original  data  filed  at  the  Eugenics  Record  Office.    B,  Bermuda;  J,  Jamaica;  L,  Louisiana. 

Altogether,  determinations  were  made  on  18  negroes,  and  gave 
proportions  of  black  in  the  skin  color  ranging  from  37  to  78.  The  fre- 
quencies of  the  various  classes  of  the  black  element  in  skin  color,  of  the 
various  grades  of  the  white  element,  and  of  the  combination  of  N+R 
grades  are  given  in  sections  Nos.  i,  2,  and  3  respectively  of  table  3. 

Table  3. — Frequency  of  each  class  of  skin  color  (per  cent  of  N)  in  iS  "full-blooded"  negroes. 


No 

.  I. 

No 

.  3. 

No 

.3. 

Class. 

Fre- 

Class. 

Fre- 

Class. 

Pre- 

Np.c. 

quency. 

W  p.c. 

quency. 

N  -H  R  p.c. 

quency. 

3S-39 

I 

0-4 

4 

70-74 

» 

40-44 

3 

5-9 

9 

75-79 

2 

45-49 

4 

10-14 

3 

80-84 

3 

S0-S4 

3 

15-19 

3 

8S-89 

8 

SS-S9 

I 

90-94 

2 

60-64 

I 

95-99 

I 

6S-69 

0 

70-74 

3 

75-79 

4 

18 

18 

IS 

10       HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

By  No.  I  we  see  plainly  the  presence  of  two  sharply  separated 
types,  of  which  one  has  a  mode  at  45-49,  the  other  in  the  70's.  On 
inquiring  into  the  meaning  of  this  dimorphism  of  the  skin  color  of  the 
negro,  one  has  to  recognize  that  it  is  less  a  dimorphism  of  the  white 
than  of  the  black  element  of  the  skin  color.  If  one  combines  the  N  +R 
grades  (table  3,  No.  3)  only  a  single  mode  appears,  at  85-89. 

The  fact  that  the  sum  of  the  black  and  red  constituents  of  the 
skin  color  of  the  different  negroes,  presumably  derived  from  different 
African  races,  is  so  nearly  constant  suggests  that  our  negroes  fall  into 
two  biotypes  differing  in  the  thickness  of  the  skin;  for  the  thicker  the 
skin  the  more  the  red  capillaries  are  obscured  and  the  greater  the 
depth  of  the  black  pigment.  This  would  accord  with  the  difference 
in  the  color  of  the  African  races  mentioned  above,  and  would  suggest 
a  possible  source  of  variability  of  negro  peoples  apart  from  hybridi- 
zation. The  question  whether  the  negroes  of  Jamaica  came  from  a 
different  part  of  Africa  than  those  of  Bermuda  can  not  be  answered 
with  certainty.  It  is  known,  from  their  language  (Johnston,  1910, 
p.  247),  that  the  negroes  of  Jamaica  came  from  the  Chwi-speaking 
peoples  of  Ashanti  and  Fanti,  who  have  lighter  complexions  than  the 
Senegambian  negroes  (Dowd,  1907,  p.  81).  The  importation  of  negroes 
to  Bermuda  began  in  16 16,  and  there  is  reason  for  believing  that  the 
negroes  whom  the  English  secured  at  that  early  date  were  of  those 
captured  by  the  Portuguese,  who  operated  largely  in  Senegambia. 

Attention  may  be  called,  at  this  point,  to  our  great  lack  of  precise 
information  about  the  differences  in  skin  color  of  the  native  African 
races,  the  anatomical  basis  of  the  differences,  and  the  method  of  inheri- 
tance of  African  skin  color  of  the  different  sorts. 


III.   Skin  Color  of  the  Children  of  a  Negro  and  a  Caucasian — The 

Fi  Generation. 

In  the  course  of  field  work  there  was  occasionally  found  a  strict 
mulatto;  i.e.,  the  first  generation  hybrid  between  a  Caucasian  and  a 
negro.  A  collection  of  all  of  these  cases  is  here  made  in  order  to  deter- 
mine the  standard  of  color  belonging  to  this  cross. 

Table  4. — Determinations  oj  the  skin  color  oj  Fi  hybrids  between  whites  and  negroes. 

I.  BERMUDA. 


Case 

No. 


B.  Ill,  2.... 
B.  VII.  2... 

B.X.  I 

BXI.  1 

B.  XIII.  2.. 

B.XV.  I... 
B.  XVII.  2. 
B.  XXI.  I.. 

B.  XXI,  I.. 
B.XXXI,  I. 
B.XXXII,2 


Father. 
N.     Red. 


5         25.  , 

white,  br., 
dark  Jew . 
white .  .  .  , 
white .  .  .  , 

white  .  . .  , 
7  40. 

white  .  .  .  . 


Mother. 
N.     Red. 


Offspring — percentage 
of  black  in  skin  of  each. 


71       18.  .    37 

77        15-  .'  43 
dark  br. . .    35  . 


35 
39 


35 

30 


43 

43 


37 

45 


35 

30. 


35- 


white . 
white . 
white . 


orowi 
70 

isKin 
17.  . 

dark. 

75 

black 

18.  . 

Af- 

rican .  .  . 

negro 
41 .  . 

.... 

41 

39.   . 

34     40     45;    seven   others,  dead 
or  absent;  also  53°  not  counted. 
39 
31     31     32     31      25 

22     34     40     32 

39 

25' 

25     41 


Remarks. 


Father  born  in  Sweden. 
Father  has  blue  eyes. 
Mother  called  pure  neg^ro. 


Father  English." 


Father  English.'' 


»  Hair  kinky,  parentage  doubtful. 


*  Tanned. 


RESULTS. 


11 


Table  4. — Determinations  oj  the  skin  color  of  Fi  hybrids  bctu'ccn  whiles  and  negroes. — Cont'd. 

II.  JAMAICA. 


Case 

No. 


J.  II.  I 

J.  Ill,  I.... 
J.  XII,  2.  .. 

J.  XIV,  2... 

J.  XVIII.  I. 
J.  XXIV,  I. 
J.  XXXI,  I 

J.  LI,  I 

J.  LI,  2 

J.  LX,  I.... 


Father. 
N.      Red. 


white . 
white . 
white. 

white . 

white, 
white . 
white . 

white . 

white, 
white . 


Mother. 
N.     Red. 


pure  black 
African. .  . 
60        29. . 


47 


37. 


Offspring — percentage 
of  black  in  skin  of  each. 


"black".  , 
54  35.. 
"black". 

"black". 

"black", 
"black". 


36. 
33. 

28 

23 

38. 
32. 
26. 


25 


25- 

31 


23 

23°. 


Remarks. 


Father  Bngliih. 

Father  Jew. 

Father   English;    mother  pure 
negro. 

Father   English;  mother   pure 
negro. 

Father  Jew. 

Father    '      '  *'   '  if  pure  white. 

Father                 ,    mother's  rel- 
ative-   k. 

Mother    not    seen;    origin    un- 
certain. 

Father  blue-eyed  Scotchman. 


III.  LOUISIANA. 


L.  111,2., 

L.  IV, 2. 
L.  V,  I.  ., 
L.VI,  I.. 


white, 
white . 
white . 
white . 


45  32.. 
40  32.. 
"black  ".  . 
70     28.5  . 


25 

20 
20 
29 


20     20. 


Mother  full-blooded  negress. 


"  A  grandmother.    Pigment  has  faded. 


Table  5. — Summary. 


Grades   of    N 
in  Fi  hybrids. 

Bermuda. 

Jamaica. 

Louisiana. 

Parents: 
white  X 

'tt!V- 

Parents: 
white  X 

ct.N 

Parents: 

white   X 

47-60  p. 

ct.  N 

Parents: 

white   X 

40-70  p. 

ct.  .N 

20  to  24 

25  to  29 

30  to  34 

35  to  39 

40  to  44 

45  to  49  

Total..  . 

I 

I 

9 

10 

6 
2 

2 
I 

4 
5 

4 

I 

2 
3 
I 

29 

3 

14 

6 

Corresponding  with  the  difference  in  skin  color  of  the  parents,  a 
matter  that  v^'e  have  already  discussed,  there  is  seen  to  be  an  evident 
difference  in  the  skin  color  of  the  Fi  hybrids.  The  ver\'  dark  negro 
strain  produces,  on  the  whole,  the  darkest  offspring,  with  a  mean 
value  of  about  35  per  cent  N.  The  hybrids  from  the  lighter  strain 
have  a  mean  value  of  about  26  per  cent  N. 

IV.  Skin  Color  of  the   Children  of  Two   Mul.\ttoes— The   Fj 

Generation. 

The  second  generation  of  hybrids  is  the  one  which,  in  modem 
studies  in  heredity,  is  relied  on  to  give  the  key  to  the  number  of  factors 
involved  in  the  production  of  any  characteristic;  so  we  look  to  it  with 
especial  eagerness.  Unfortunately,  however,  the  mating  of  two  strict 
mulattoes  is  not  common,  so  that  the  total  number  of  cases  available 


12        HEREDITY   OF    SKIN    COLOR   IN    NEGRO-WHITE    CROSSES. 


for  this  study  has  been  small.     Such  cases  as  have  been  collected  are 
given,  with  full  details,  in  table  6. 

Table  6. — Proportion  of  black  in  skin  color  of  offspring  of  two  mulattoes,  together  with  color 

of  parents  a?id  grandparents,  so  far  as  ascertained. 


Ref                T^      t:- 

F.  M. 

Ik  t     %  r 

F. 

(p.ct. 

M. 
(p.  ct. 

Offspring,  in  order  of  birth  (p.  ct.  N). 

'i,-        F.  F. 

1 

No. 

N). 

N). 

I 

2 

3 

4 

S 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

II 

12 

B.  ar. 

II.  2  '"White" 

African. 

White 

Afr.  (?) 

32 

39 

43 

48  + 

39± 

34 

30  + 

35 

38 

42 

56 

54 

48 

36 

T.  9.  I.    Scotch  .. 

Mad'g'r 

Engl.  .   Pureblk. 

Mulat. 

Mulat. 

IS 

II 

13 

18 

i8± 

r.ss.l   White  .. 
L.  I.  II   White  .  . 

Black . . . 

White.  1  Black . .  . 

2S± 

2S± 

20 

I5± 

20± 

I0± 

30± 

Negress . 

White.  1  Negress . 

30 

2S 

30 

16 

16 

26 

26± 

23 

33 

35 

2Q 

L.  2.  I    White  .  . 

Negress. 

White.!  Negress. 

Mulat. 

Mulat. 

10 

•• 

•• 

•• 

•• 

•• 

•• 

Comparing  table  4  with  table  6,  it  appears  at  once  that  whereas 
the  total  range  of  skin  color  in  the  Fi  generation  is,  for  52  individuals, 
26  points;  in  the  F2  generation,  for  only  32  individuals,  it  is  47  points. 
Since  the  range  increases,  other  things  being  equal,  with  the  logarithm 
of  the  number  of  individuals,  we  see  that  the  variabilit}'  in  the  F2 
generation  is  more  than  twice  as  great  as  the  variability  in  the  Fi 
generation.  Similarly,  the  average  range  of  variability  inside  of  a 
fraternity  of  F2  offspring  is  nearly  1%  the  average  range  of  variability 
inside  of  a  fraternity  of  Fi  offspring.  Also,  whereas  the  lightest  mulatto 
in  our  records  has  more  than  double  the  percentage  of  black  of  a 
medium-skinned  Caucasian,  2  out  of  32  of  the  F2  generation  have  10 
or  II  per  cent  black  or  close  to  the  skin  color  of  the  ordinary  brunet 
Caucasian.    Compare,  for  example,  the  following  formulae: 

L.  2,  I.     F2  generation  hybrid N  10,     R  30,     Y  12,     W  48 

Caucasian N    7,     R  30,     Y  15,    W  48 

In  these  cases  the  proportion  of  white  and  of  red  is  the  same;  the 
difference  is  in  the  relative  amount  of  black  and  ^^ellow. 

Similarly,  the  darkest  of  the  F2  generation  may  exceed  the  color 
of  the  mulatto  parents;  though,  owing  to  the  great  range  of  color  of 
pure-bred  blacks,  they  do  not  closel}^  approach  the  color  of  the  darkest 
blacks.    The  following  case  from  Bermuda  is  instructive : 

Fi  father N  32,  R  41, 

Fi  mother N  39,  R  37, 

Child N  56,  R  31, 

Child N  54,  R  28, 

Here  the  skin  color  of  the  darker  child  is  almost  one-half  darker  than 
the  darker  parent,  is  darker  than  any  mulatto  in  my  records,  and  is 
darker  than  many  of  the  "pure-bred"  Africans. 

V.  Hypothesis. 

The  increased  variability  of  the  F2  as  compared  with  the  Fi  genera 
tion  indicates  the  probability  of  segregation.    It  now  remains  to  decide, 
if  possible,  how  many  factors  for  black  are  involved  in  the  pigmenta- 


YI4. 

W  13 

Y  10, 

W14 

Y    6, 

W    7 

Y    6. 

W  12 

RESULTS. 


13 


50 


40 


30 


^ 


20 


10 


tion  of  the  negro  skin.  If  there  were  only  one  (duplex)  factor  involved, 
we  should  expect  one-fourth  of  the  children  in  the  F2  generation  to  be 
white,  one-fourth  black,  and  about  one-half  of  all  to  be  of  the  mulatto 
grade.  But,  as  a  matter  of  fact,  in  32  F2  individuals  there  are  not  8, 
but  only  2  that  are  white,  or  i  in  16;  consequently  it  is  certain  that 
more  than  one  (double)  factor  is  involved  in  black  skin  pigmentation. 
Consideration  of  all  the  tables  has  led 
me  to  the  following  hypothesis,  which 
may  be  stated  now  in  order  that  it  may 
be  tested  by  the  results  of  other  matings 
to  be  considered  directly.  There  are  two 
(double)  factors  (A  and  B)  for  black  pig- 
mentation in  the  full-blooded  negro  of  the 
west  coast  of  Africa,  and  these  are  sepa- 
rately inheritable. 

On  the  foregoing  hypothesis  we 
may  look  for  five  conditions  of  skin 
color,  as  follows:  (i)  no  factor  for 
black — the  Caucasian  condition ;  (2)  no 
B  factor,  the  A  factor  simplex — the 
light-colored ;  (3)  either  no  B  factor  and 
the  A  factor  duplex  or  both  A  and  B 
factors  simplex — the  medium-colored, 
or  mulatto;  (4)  one  factor  duplex  and 
the  other  simplex — the  dark-colored 
skin;  (5)  both  factors  duplex — the  black 
skin.  It  is  evident,  moreover,  that  these 
five  grades  do  not  correspond  to  sharp 
percentages  of  black,  and,  indeed,  it 
was  not  to  be  expected  that  they  would. 
Every  character  is  subject  to  fluctua- 
tions due  to  variations  in  conditions 
during  development,  effects  of  sunlight, 
etc.  If,  however,  these  five  points  are 
real  ones  they  should  show  themselves 
when  the  grades  of  the  skin  color  of  the 
entire  population  are  thrown  into  one 
frequency  polygon.  This  has  been  done 
both  for  the  determinations  made  at 
Bermuda  and  at  Jamaica.  The  polygon 
of  percentages  of  skin  black  in  Bermuda 
shows  the  greater  variability  and  con- 
sequently lends  itself  the  better  to  our 

purposes.    The  polygon  of  the  Jamaica  determinations  has  such  an 
overwhelming  proportion  of  the  light-colored  individuals  as  to  obscure 

2 


10     20     30     -JO  •  60     60  1 70 
Per  cent  of  N   in  skin  color 


80 


Fig.  3.- 


-PolyRon  of  frequency  of  c.ich  grade 
of  N  in  skin  color.  Bcrmud.^. 


14       HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

the  evidence  of  its  compoundness.  Now  the  Bermuda  polygon  (fig.  3) 
gives  evidence  of  five  maxima,  as  follows:  (i)  about  5  per  cent;  (2) 
about  18  per  cent;  (3)  about  35  per  cent;  (4)  about  46  per  cent;  and 
(5)  about  70  per  cent.  Smoothing,  somewhat,  the  empirical  results,  we 
may  take  the  probable  range  of  effect  of  our  five  hypothetical  factors 
as  given  in  table  7. 

Table  7. — Classification  of  hybrid  skin  colors  on  the  basis  of  the  factor  hypothesis* 


Factors. 

Gametic 
formulae. 

Color. 

Relative 
frequen- 
cy. 

Range  of 
p.  ct.  in 
ofiEspring. 

Popular    names 
(Jamaica). 

Both  absent 

One  present 

Two  present 

Three  present. .  . . 
All  four  present .  . 

atbi 

Aabi  .  .  . 
AaBb  .. 

AtBb   .  . 
AiBi... 

White 

Light  colored .... 
Medium    colored 

(Fi) 

Dark  colored .... 
Black 

I  :  16 

4  :  16 

6  :  16 

4  :  16 
I  :  16 

O-II 
I2-2S 

26-40 
41-55 
56-78 

"Pass  for  white." 

Mustifino. 

Mustifee. 

Octoroon. 

Quadroon. 

Mulatto. 
Mangro,  Sambo. 
Negro. 

We  are  now  in  a  position  to  test  this  hypothesis  in  various  matings, 
of  which  the  ancestry  is  not  precisely  known.  We  may  assume,  what 
is  close  to  the  truth,  that  parents  with  a  skin  color  of  N  9  or  less  have 
the  gametic  formula  0262;*  those  with  N  between  the  grades  of  10 
and  25,  inclusive,  have  the  formula  Aabi;  those  with  N  between  the 
grades  of  26  and  40,  AaBb;  those  with  N  between  the  grades  41  and 
55,  A2Bb;  those  with  N  between  the  grades  56  and  78,  A2B2.  We  can 
calculate  the  proportion  of  offspring  of  each  zygotic  composition  and 
compare  with  the  proportion  of  offspring  of  each  class  of  color.  If  the 
agreement  is  close,  the  hypothesis  is  justified;  otherwise  it  is  not 
justified. 

A  word  about  the  determination  of  the  class  ranges.  It  was  first 
determined  empirically  that  grades  below  10  per  cent  were  not  only 
common  among  Caucasians,  but  parents  with  grades  less  than  10  per 
cent  do  not,  with  rare  exceptions,  have  children  of  darker  skin  color 
than  themselves.  It  was  then  decided  to  divide  the  whole  range  be- 
tween 10  and  70  into  four  equal  classes  with  a  range  of  15  points  each. 
In  the  final  adjustment  the  first  of  these  classes  contains  16  points  and 
the  last  was  extended  to  78  to  include  a  few  very  dark  individuals 
found  in  Bermuda.  There  is  reason  for  thinking  that  the  range  of  the 
first  two  classes  should  be  somewhat  equalized  in  the  offspring.  For 
"offspring"  are,  on  the  whole,  younger  than  parents,  and  their  skin 
has  undergone  less  of  that  fading  which  is  found  in  older  persons.  A 
filial  grade  of  10  or  11  corresponds  to  a  parental  grade  of  9.  Accord- 
ingly, the  limits  for  the  two  lower  grades  of  skin  color  are  set,  in  the 
offspring,  at  o-ii  and  12-25,  respectively. 

•Capital  letters  {A,  B)  indicate  presence  of  the  factor,  lower  case  letters  {a,  b) 
absence  of  the  factor. 


RESULTS. 


15 


VI.  Test  of  the  Hypothesis. 

To  test  the  hypothesis  we  must  take  up  in  order  the  matings  of 
various  grades  of  skin  color  and  consider  their  offspring. 

Table  8. — Both  parents  of  class  o-g;  gametes  without  factor  for  negro  X. 


Reference 
No. 

Grade  of 

parents. 

Frequency  of  each  class  of 
offspring. 

Grades  of  N  found, 
p.  ct. 

Retnarkc. 

F. 

M. 

O-II 

12-25 

36-40 

41-55 

56-78 

B.  27.  II.. 
B.  30.  II.. 
J.  52,  II.. 

Total..  . 
Exp. .  . . 

S-fc 
6 

Si: 

5 
5 
8± 

4 
3 

2 





9.  7.  9.  4 

S±.  S.  7 

3i:.  8.  (2) 





Youngest  i  yr.  old. 



9 
9 









Table  8a. — Mother's  gametes  probably  without  factor  for  N;  father  " passes  for  white;"  half 

of  his  gametes  may  contain  i  factor  for  N. 


Reference 
No. 

Grades  of 
parents. 

Frequency  of  each  class  of 
offspring. 

Grades  of  N 

found. 

p.ct. 

Remarks. 

F. 

M. 

O-II 

..-« 

26-40 

41-SS 

56-78 

J.  21.  II.. 

Pass  w. 

7 

•5 

3 



4=*=.  IS.  7. 19.  4.  4. 4*. 
19* 

•Total  blind. 
Table  9. — Father  without  factor  for  negro  N,  mother  with  i  factor  for  negro  N. 


Reference 
No. 

Parents. 

Offspring. 

Remarks. 

F. 

M. 

O-II 

I 
I 
I 
2 

3 

I 
2 
3 
I 
2 
I 
S 
I 
I 

I 
0 
6 
6 

3 

'2" 

12-25 

26-40 

41-55 

56-78 

B.  8.  Ill 

B.  25. II 

B.  28.  II 

B.  29.  Ill    

B.  29.  Ill 

B.  32,  II 

B.  22,  II 

J.  10,  II 

9 

7 
9 

S 

s 

Fair 
5   =t 
W 
8 

W 

Pass  w 
0 
2 

5  ± 

6  ± 
S 

7  ± 
7 

5   * 
0 

5 

5    ± 
S 
S   * 

10 
23 
10 
16 
20 
17 
20 
18 
19 
18 
20 
IS 
13 

13 
II 
19 

a   9 
16 

15=*= 
IS  =*= 
20 
12  ± 
20 
18 

3 

2 
I 
4 
3 
6 

I 
3 

3 
4 
3 

I 
5 

I 

2 
I 
I 

3 
2 
I 
7 

2 

I 

1 
+  I  ch.,  6  mo.,  N"  5. 
+  I  ch.,  I  yr.  N  8. 
+  I  ch.,  I  yr..  N  6. 

4-  I  ch.,  8  mo..  N'  6. 

+  I  ch..  I8  mo.,  N  13. 
+  2  ch.  d.  about  14  m.. 
both  N  9- 

+  1  ch.,  iK  yrs.,  X  7. 

+  I  ch.,  6  mo..  N  33. 
+  I  ch.,  I  yr.,  N  13. 

1 
1 

i 
1 

J.  IS.  II 

J- 9.  II 

J.  22,  I 

J.  16,  II 

J.  28,  II 

J,-39.II 

J.  42.  II 

J.  38.  II 

J.  38.  II 

J.  38.  II 

T.41.II 

1  25.  II 

J-  51.  Ill 

T.  cc.  I 

J.  5s!ll 

J.  56.  II 

Total 

Expectation .... 



42 
49.5 

56 
49. 5 

I 
0 

0 
0 

0 

0 

"  Placed  here  partly  because  proportion  of  white  in  her  skin  color  formula  is  low  (33  per  cent),   partly 
because  of  origin,  and  partly  because  of  the  skin  color  of  her  progeny. 


16       HEREDITY   OF    SKIX   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 


Table  io. — Father  without  factor  for  negro  N;  mother  with  2  factors  for  negro  N. 


Reference 
No. 


Parents. 


F. 


B.  13,  III 5  * 

B.  16.  II 5  =*= 

B.  2S,  II 6 

J.    8,  II Pass  w 

J.  II,  II Pass  w 

J.  18.  II 8 

J.  23,  II Pass  w 

J.  16.  II '3 

J.  19,  II 3 

J.  19,  II 8 

J.  48.  II 2 

J.  SI.  Ill Pass  w 


Total. .  . , 
Expectation . . 


M. 


27 
31 
35 
25 
27 
30 
38 
36 
25 
25 
25 

25  + 


Offspring. 


O-II      12-25      26-40      4I-S5 


II 
16 


I 
I 

4 

2 

3 

I 
2 
6 
I 
5 
6 


32 
32 


21 
16 


[I] 
o 


S6-78 


Remarks. 


+  1  ch.,  I  yr.,  N  so. 


Dark  child,  illegitimate. 


Table  ii. — Father  without  factor  for  negro  N;  mother  with  3  factors  for  negro  N. 


Reference 

Parents. 

Offspring. 

Remarks. 

No. 

F. 

M. 

o-n 

12-25       26-40    j   4I-SS 

56-78 

B.  16.  II 

B.  16,  III 

B.  21,  II 

B.  31,  II 

B.  24.  II 

B.  27,  II 

J.     7.  II 

J.  14.  II 

J.  48,  II 

J.  56.  I 

7 

5   ± 
7 

S   =»= 
5 
5 

Pass  w 
W 
0 
2  =fc 

so 
so 
40 
41 
40 
40  ± 
46 
47 
SO 
dark 

I 

1  2 

2  2 
I                     I 
I                     I 

1  r 

2  4 
I              2 

3            

I 
.... 

+  1  ch.,  6  mo.,  N  8. 

+  I  ch.,  I  yr.,  N  23. 
+  I  ch.,  7  mo.,  N  10. 

+  I  ch.,  9  mo.,  N  25. 

Total 

Expectation .... 

I 
0 

14             13               I 
14.5         I4-S           0 

0 
0 

Table  12.- 

—Father  without  factor  for  negro  N;  mother  • 

joith  4  factors  for  negro  N. 

Reference 
No. 

Parents. 

Offspring. 

F.           M. 

o-ri 

12-25     26-40 

4I-S5 

56-78 

B.     3.11 

B.  13,  II 

B.  17,  II 

J.    12,  II 

Total 

Expectation.  .  , . 

s             71 

5   =*=            70 
7                   75 
W                 60 

....    1    ....    '       4 
....    '     ....           2 
....     '     ....          '5 
....     i    ....          "3 

•i 

1.2 

.... 

::::    :::: 

0 
0 

0       1     14 
0            17 

3 
0 

0 
0 

"  N  43. 

I-  II  8,  cJ*.  skin  color  53.  32,  7,  8;  II  li    9  ,  skin  45.  32.  10,  13. 


•  Including  i  N  25  per  cent. 
<*  Including  2  N  25  per  cent. 


Table  13. — Father  with  i  factor  for  7iegro  N;  mother  without  factor  for  negro  N. 


Reference 
No. 

Parents.                                    Offspring. 

Remarks. 

F. 

M.          o-ii 

12-25 

26-40 

41-55 

56-78 

B.6,  IV 

B.  27,  II 

B.  29,  III 

J.  28,  I 

J.  28,  II 

J.  30,  II 

J.  ss,  II 

19 

19 
»  8 
15   ± 
10 
19 
20 
IS   ± 

8 

7 
8 
7 
4 
3 
S 
S 

I 
I 
3 
2 

2 
1 
2 
2 

3 

4 
I 
I 
3 
4 
3 
S 

+  I  ch.,  7  mo.,  N  10. 
+  I  ch.,  4  mo.,  N  5- 

J.  59,  II 

Total 

Expectation .... 





14 
19 

24 
19 

0 

0 

0 
0 

0 

0 

»  From  a  mating  white  X  45  per  cent  N,  the  mother  probably  a  3-factor  colored.    This  man  tans  heavily 
and,  as  N  J-  R  =  52  per  cent,  he  doubtless  has  one  factor  for  black. 


'~.  VIM  it^  .-oidic:    Liuidiy 
RESULTS. 


Table  14. — Father  with  i  factor  for  negro  N;  mother  with  i  factor  for  negro  N. 


Reference. 
Mo. 


Parents 
F. 


B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B, 
B, 
J. 


J. 

J: 

J. 
J. 

i: 

J. 
J. 
J. 

J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 


8, 
25. 

25. 

26. 

27, 

29, 
36. 
19. 
19. 

4. 
13. 
17. 

9. 

9. 

9. 
47. 
22, 
26, 
51. 
51. 
51, 
S3. 


III. 

I.  . 
II. 

II.  , 
I.  . 
II. 
III. 
II. 
II. 

II.., 
II... 
II.., 

I.  .  . 

II.  . 
11.., 
II.., 
II.. 
II.. 
III. 
III. 
III. 
II.. 


54,11 

57.  III..., 

60,  II 

62.  II 


13 

10  =fc 

20 

20  =«= 

14 

16 

14 

14 

19 

15 

12  =*= 

20 

12 

22 

18 

23 

22 

15 

20 

18 

17 

17  ± 

12  =t 
16  =t 
23  =t 
20 


12  =*= 

13* 

22 

13 

18  ± 

20 

23=«= 

20 

22 

15 

15=*= 

15 

20  ± 

23 

18 

18^ 

Total. .  . 
Expectation. 


M. 

16 

20  =t 
17 
16 
18 

32 

16 

14 

19 

20 

12 

10 

13 

13 

20 

20 

15 

15 

23 

18 

12  ■■ 

15 

16 
12 
16 
12 


OfTspring. 


o-ii      12-35      26-40  ;  41-55      56-78 


24 
33.5 


4 
3 
4 
2 
5 

3 
3 

3 
4 
3 

4 
8 
4 
5 
2 
3 
I 
2 
8 
2 

4 

4 
2 

5 

87 
67 


23 
33-5 


O 
O 


krmarkt. 


+  1  ch..  3  wk..  N  17. 
+  1  ch.,  3  mo..  N  5. 


•f  I  ch.,  (I  mo.,  N  8. 


+  1  ch.,  1  yr..  N  i8. 


+  2  ch.,  d.  inf.,  N  Ic»» 
than  13  per  cent. 

+  1  ch.,  A  mo..  N  7. 


o 
o 


Table  15. — Father  with  j  factor  for  negro  N;  mother  with  2  factors  for  negro  N. 

Offspring. 


Reference 
No. 


B.  17,  III. 
B.  23,  II., 
B.  25.  II.  , 
B.  29,  III. 
B.  31.  II.  , 
B.  38,  II.  . 


Parents. 


F. 


j:  '■ " 


9.  III. 


IS 

18 

20  ■■ 
16 

IS  ^ 
20  ■■ 
II 
17 


Total..  ., 
Expectation . , 


M. 


o-ii 


32 

38 

28 

36 

26 

26 

33^ 

33 


12-25        26-40 


3 

2 
2 
I 
5 

2 
I 


16 

12 


8 

12 


41-55 


S6-78 


o 

o 


Remarks. 


-r  I  ch.,  1  yr.,  N  54' 
4-  I  ch.,  9  mo.,  N  10. 
-j-  1  ch.,  3  mo..  Nil. 

+  I  ch.,  l6  mo..  N  6. 

+  I  ch.  I  yr..  N  ii. 


Table  i6. — Father  with  i  factor  for  negro  N;  mother  with  4  factors  for  negro  N. 

1  Remarks. 


Reference 
No. 


Parents. 


Offspring. 


B.  21.  III. 
B.  7.  II.  .. 


21 
10 


Total. .  . 
Expectation . 


M. 

°53 

77 


0-1 1 


12-25 

26-40 

41-55 

I 

S 
3 

0 

0 

1 
5 

8 

5 

56-78 

I 


4-  I  ch.,  6  mo.,  N  35- 
+  2  ch.,  at  3  mo.,  N  30. 


"  From  a  brown-skinned  family,  no  white  blood  known  of. 

Table  17. — Father  with  2  factors  for  negro  N;  mother  with  no  factors  for  negro  X. 


Reference 

Parents. 

No. 

F. 

M. 

B.  10,  II 

B.  16,  II 

B.  27.  I 

J.    9.111 

J.  SI.  HI 

J.  56.  II 

35 
28 
27  ± 

25  =t 

26 

25 

5 

7 

8 

7 

5* 

0 

Offspring. 


Remarks. 


0-1 1 


Total 

Expectation. 


4 
3 
2 
2 
2 
I 

14 
6.5 


12-25 


2 

2 

3 

I 

8 
13 


26-40   41-55  I  56-78 


T 


h.,  5  mo.,  N  T.). 


4 
6.5 


18       HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 


Table  i8. — Father  with  2  factors  for  negro  N;  mother  with  i  factor  for  negro  N. 


Reference. 
No. 

Parents. 

Offspring. 

Remarks. 

F. 

M. 

O-II 

12-25 

26-40 

41-55 

56-78 

B.  20,  II 

B.  21.  Ill 

B.  22,  II 

J.  4.  Ill 

J.  7.  Ill 

J.  20,  II 

J.32,11 

J.  53.  II 

J.  61.  II 

Total 

Exp.  (abt.) 

21 

30 

25=*= 

25 

25 

33  ± 

35  ± 

30 

30 

15 

22 

20 

II 

10 

13 

17=*= 

14 

13 

I 
I 
I 

2 
3 
3 

4 

2 

5 
S 

I 
2 

I 

2 
I 

0 
0 

17 
18.S 

20 
18.5 

0 
0 

0 

0 

Table  19. — Father  with  2  factors  for  negro  N;  mother  with  2  factors  for  negro  N. 


Reference 
No. 

Parents. 

Offspring. 

Remarks. 

F. 

M. 

O-II 

12-25 

26-40 

41-55 

56-78 

B.4.  HI 

B.  17,111 

B.  21,  11' 

B.  24.  II 

B.  35,  I 

017 
30  =t 

32 

33  ± 
30  ± 
26 
33 

40=fc 
40  ± 
40 
28  ± 
brown 
35=^ 
30 
26 

25  ± 
27 

25  =t 
25  ± 
25  =t 
30 

35 

31 

39 

33 

36 

36 

35 

30 

35 

32 

28 

31 

32  =t 

37 

37 

30 

35 

39 

25 

25  ± 
25 

I 

.... 

.... 

I 

I 
I 

•  • 

[ 

2 

6 

I 
I 
2 
4 

2 

3 

5 

2 

4 

"i' 
4 
I 

I 

"6" 

2 
6 

■■r 

I 

r 

+  ich.,  d.  6  mo.,  N  20  =fc. 
(i-  I  ch..  d.  14  mo.,  N  45. 
\-|-  I  ch..d.  9  mo.,  N  25. 

+  I  ch.,  10  mo.,  N  33. 
+  I  ch.,  3  mo.,  N  32. 

+  I  ch.,  17  mo.,  N  35- 
+  I  ch.,  2  mo.,  N  19. 

J.   2,   II 

J.  3,  II 

J.  5.  Ill 

J.  7.  Ill 

J.  7.  Ill 

J.  7.  II 

J.  13.  II 

J.  27.11 

J.  29,  II 

j.3i.n 

J-  43.  II 

1-44.  n 

J.  32,  II 

J.  53.  II 

J.  55.1' 

L.  I.  11' 

Total 

Expectation .... 

2 
2 
2 

I 

2 

■4' 

I 
3 

I 
3 

;::: 



4 
2.8 

18 
22 

SI 
38.5 

14 
22 

I 
2.8 

"  Taken  in  evening;  regarded  by  observer  as  unreliable;  W  40. 
'  Both  parents  Fi  mulattoes. 


Table  20. — Father  with  2  factors  for  negro  N;  mother  with  3  factors  for  negro  N. 


Reference. 

No. 

Parents. 

Offspring. 

Remarks. 

F. 

M. 

O-II 

12-25 

26-40 

41-SS 

56-78 

B.  II.  II 

B.  13,  III 

B.  21,  III 

B.  21.  Ill 

J.  I,  II 

34 
30 
26 
38 
30 

40 
45 
45 
40 
41 

I 
2 

3 

2 

4 
I 
3 

I 

I 

Total 

Exp.  (abt.) 

....    1       - 





0 
0 

3               5 
2.5           7-5 

II 
7.5 

I 
2.5 

RESULTS. 


19 


Table  21. — Father  with  3  factors  for  negro  N;  mother  with  i  factor  for  negro  N. 


Reference 
No. 

Parents. 

Offspring. 

Remark*. 

F. 

M. 

o-ii    1  ia-2s 

36-40 

4I-5S 

56-78 

J.  46.  II 

J.  S.III 

Total 

E.xpectation 

40  =*= 
55* 

22 
16 

::::  i  v 

s 

3 

.... 

.... 

+  I  ch..  r  yr.,  N  i8. 

0      2 
0   j  2.25 

7 
45 

0 

3.25 

0 
0 

Table  22. — Father  with  j  factors  for  negro  N;  mother  with  2  factors  for  negro  N. 


Reference 

Parents. 

Oflspring. 

Remarks. 

No. 

F. 

M. 

O-II 

12-25 

26-40 

41-SS 

56-78 

B.  3.  Ill 

J.  16,  I 

40=*= 
colored 

35 
30=*= 

T 

I 

3 

I 

+  I  ch.,  4  mo.,  N  35. 

Total 

Expectation  .  .  . 





0               I 

0           0.6 

3 
1.8 

I 
1.8 

0 

0.6 

Table  23. — Father  with  j  factors  for  negro  N;  mother  with  j  factors  for  negro  N. 


Reference 
No. 

Parents. 

Offspring.                              1 

F. 

M. 

O-II 

12-25 

26-40 

41-SS 

Kemarici. 

56-78 

1 

B.  3.  Ill 

B.  12.  II 

B.  IS,  II 

B.  18,  II 

Total 

Exp.  (abt.) 

S0=t 
41 
46 
49 

43 
46 

39 
49  ± 



— 

3* 

I 

2 

5 

4 
2 

1 
....       +1  ch..  I  yr..  N  46. 

+1  ch..  1  yr..  N  45. 

I         +1  ch..  I  yr..  N  4S- 
....       -1-  I  ch.,  6  mo.,  N  27. 

.... 

0 

0 

0 
0 

4 
4-5 

13 
9 

I 
4.5 

^ 

Table  24. — Father  with  4  factors  for  negro  N;  mother  with  1  factor  for  negro  N. 


Reference 
No. 

Parents. 

Oflspring. 

Remarks. 

F. 

M. 

O-II 

12-25 

26-40 

41-55 

56-78 

B.  21,  III 

Exp.  (abt.) 

65 

22 
.... 

0 

0 

'4 

2 

2 

0 

"Including  two  with   25  per   cent   N.  but   a  low  proportion  of  white  (25  per  cent  and  22  per  cent  W, 
respectively). 


Tables  8  to  24  give  the  number  of  offspring  falling  into  each  class 
of  skin  color  and  also  the  expected  distribution  of  the  same  total  num- 
ber in  the  respective  classes.  This  expectation  is  based  on  hypothesis. 
It  will  be  worth  while  to  consider  how  this  "expectation"  was  reached 
in  each  case. 


20        HEREDITY    OF    SKIN    COLOR    IN    NEGRO-WHITE    CROSSES. 

From  tables  8  and  8a  it  is  clear  that,  by  hypothesis,  the  germ-cells 
of  neither  parent  contain  the  factors  for  black;  hence  none  of  the  off- 
spring should  exceed  grade  ii  per  cent  of  N,  and  none  do.  There  is, 
however,  one  case  that  stands  by  itself  and  is  placed  in  table  8a.  The 
father  in  this  case  was  dead.  His  skin  is  said  to  have  been  so  fair  that 
he  would  have  passed  anywhere  for  white.  His  mother's  mother  was 
a  "colored"  woman  and  his  mother  a  very  fair  colored  woman  with 
blue  eyes;  his  father  and  mother's  father  were  British.  The  mother, 
who  had  a  skin-color  formula  7,  46,  23,  24,  was  born  of  a  brunet  mother 
of  East  Indian  and  French  origin  by  a  very  fair  colored  father.  There 
are  8  children,  of  whom  2  have  N  19  per  cent  and  i  N  15  per  cent, 
which  are  typical  "light-colored"  grades  of  pigmentation.  This  case 
might  be  taken  as  illustrating  the  view,  so  widely  held  in  America, 
that  two  w^hites,  of  whom  at  least  one  is  of  colored  origin,  may  have 
a  dark-skinned  child  by  reversion.  This  view  has  no  scientific  founda- 
tion, and  certainly  the  present  case  can  not  be  regarded  as  critical,  for 
there  are  too  many  unknown  factors.  The  case  probably  belongs  to 
table  9,  the  mother  carrying  one  factor  for  black  which  has  become 
faded  with  age,  as  she  is  over  40.  The  result  favors  this  assumption, 
since  there  is  an  approximate  equality  of  skin  colors  of  the  grades 
without  any  factor  and  with  one  factor  for  black. 

Table  g. — In  the  father  all  gametes  are  without  factor  for  N;  in 
the  mother  half  have  one  such  factor;  expectation  is  an  equal  number 
of  zygotes  with  no  factor  for  N  and  one  factor  for  N ;  actually  there  is 
a  not  highly  improbable  excess  of  the  darker  offspring.  Opposed  to 
expectation  is  one  case  of  a  child  of  7  years  with  skin  color  N  29  per 
cent  who  appears  to  be  legitimate  and  whom  we  must  regard  as  an 
extreme  fluctuate,  having  passed  the  arbitrary  boundary  of  its  class 
by  4  per  cent. 

Table  10. — In  this  case  the  gametes  of  the  father  contain  no  factor 
for  black ;  of  the  gametes  of  the  mother,  one  out  of  four  has  2  factors, 
two  have  i  factor,  and  one  has  no  factor  and  the  children  should  have 
these  factors  in  these  proportions.  There  is  another  possibility^,  but 
it  will  not  often  be  realized,  namely,  that  the  medium-colored  parent 
has  one  factor  {e.g.,  the  A  factor)  duplex  and  the  other  {B)  factor 
absent.  This  combination  will  be  found  in  one-eighth  of  the  offspring 
derived  from  two  strict  mulattoes  and,  in  larger  proportions,  from  other 
matings.  The  actual  results  favor  the  conclusion  that  in  this  case  the 
gametes  of  the  "mulatto"  parent  were  of  the  above-mentioned  three 
kinds  in  respect  to  the  number  of  factors  for  N.  The  actual  distribu- 
tion agrees  fairly  well  with  expectation  based  on  this  assumption,  except 
that  there  is  one  child  with  skin  color  N  50,  who  doubtless  has  3 
factors  for  black.  This  girl  is  probably  illegitimate,  although  both 
parents  assert  that  she  is  not.  She  is  the  only  one  of  her  fraternity  who 
has  kinky  hair.    The  mother's  hair  is  curl}'  and  the  father's  is  straight. 


RESULTS.  21 

Curly  X  straight  will  give  wav}^  or  straight,  never  kinky.  It  is  impos- 
sible to  admit  the  legitimacy  of  this  child. 

Table  ii. — The  mother  produces  two  kinds  of  gametes:  gametes 
with  I  factor  for  black  and  those  with  2  factors;  consequently  an  equal 
number  of  light  and  of  medium-colored  progeny  is  to  be  expected; 
and  this  expectation  is  nearly  realized.  In  one  of  the  oflfspring  the 
skin  color  is  given  as  N  7;  in  another  it  is  N  45.  In  both  cases  the 
resemblance  in  other  respects  is  rather  close  to  the  mulatto  mother. 
Such  a  range  from  such  a  pair  of  parents  is  unique,  and  there  is 
internal  evidence  that  justifies  doubt  as  to  the  paternity  of  these  two 
children. 

Table  12. — This  mating  gives  the  strict  mulatto,  the  generation 
in  which  great  uniformity  of  offspring  is  expected  on  any  hypothesis 
of  inheritance  of  sldn  color.  All  offspring  should  be  medium-colored. 
Of  seventeen,  fourteen  fall  in  the  expected  grade  (including  two  with 
N  25  per  cent,  which  is  the  limiting  grade  between  this  and  the  next 
lower  class).  The  three  others  fall  in  the  next  higher  class.  Of  the 
two  exceptional  individuals  that  are  found  in  the  same  fraternity  the 
darker  (N  53)  has  "typical  negro  hair,"  which  is  hardly  to  be  expected 
in  a  mulatto  and  justifies  a  doubt  as  to  the  paternity.  The  other, 
with  N  45  per  cent,  has  mulatto  (wavy)  hair.  This  may  be  an  extreme 
case,  possibly  associated  with  the  dark  skin  (N  70)  of  the  mother.  The 
case  in  pedigree  B.  3  lies  at  N  43,  just  above  the  limits  of  the  mulatto 
class,  and  her  m.other  is  also  very  dark,  N  71 ;  so  this  child,  too,  may  be 
regarded  as  a  fluctuating  extreme.  Except  for  the  probable  "mistake," 
i.e.,  illegitimacy,  the  expected  uniformity  is  practically  realized. 

Table  ij. — Expectation  is  the  same  as  in  table  9,  namely,  an 
equal  number  of  the  first  and  second  classes.  This  expectation  is 
approximately  realized. 

Table  14. — By  hypothesis  both  parents  should  produce  germ-cells 
of  two  kinds:  with  one  factor,  and  with  no  factor  for  black.  In  fer- 
tilization the  unions  giving  o  factor,  i  factor,  and  2  factors  in  the 
zygote  should  occur  respectively  1,2,  and  i  times.  The  expected  three 
classes,  and  they  only,  are  actually  realized ;  but  for  some  reason  there 
is  a  larger  proportion  in  the  middle  class  than  theory  calls  for  and  a 
corresponding  deficiency  in  the  extreme  classes;  but  the  arbitrary 
limits  of  our  classes  and  developmental  changes  have  constantly  to 
be  kept  in  mind,  so  that  lack  of  close  accord  is  not  surprising. 

Table  ij. — There  are  here  two  possibilities.  If  the  darker  parent 
is  a  strict  mulatto  she  will  form  germ-cells  of  three  sorts  (i.e.,  25  per 
cent  with  o  factor  for  N;  50  per  cent  with  i  factor  for  N;  25  per  cent 
with  2  factors  for  N),  in  which  case  the  four  classes  of  zygotes,  o,  i.  2, 
and  3  factors  for  N,  will  have  a  relative  frequency  indicated  by  the 
numbers  1:3:3:1.  But  if  the  darker  parent  be  not  a  mulatto  but  the 
daughter,  or  more  remote  descent,  of  a  mulatto  then  both  factors  for 


22       HEREDITY   OF   SKIN    COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

black  may  be  of  the  same  type  (i.e.,  either  A  or  B),  and  then  50  per 
cent  of  the  offspring  will  have  i  factor  for  black  and  50  per  cent  will 
have  2  factors.  In  table  15  none  of  the  2 -factor  parents  are  mulattoes, 
and  the  offspring  fall  into  only  two  categories;  and  they  approach  the 
expectation  on  the  second  hypothesis,  viz.,  an  equal  proportion  of 
individuals  with  i  factor  and  2  factors  for  N. 

Table  16. — Since  the  i -factor  parent  carries  germ-cells  with  no 
factor  or  with  i  factor,  offspring  are  of  two  sorts,  in  equal  proportions, 
with  2  factors  or  3  factors  for  black.  This  expectation  is,  it  must  be 
confessed,  not  satisfactorily  met;  but  not  much  weight  can  be  given 
to  this  result,  as  only  two  fraternities  are  involved.  If  we  unite  this 
table  with  the  reciprocal  of  table  24  we  get  a  distribution  0:0:5:8:1, 
which  is  close  to  the  expected  0:0:7:7:0.  The  one  individual  that 
falls  in  the  4-f actor  class  (with  N  57)  is  close  to  the  lower  limit  of  that 
class  (N  55),  and  may  be  considered  an  extreme  variant  of  the  3 -factor 
class. 

Table  17. — ^Expectation  here  is  the  same  as  in  the  case  of  table  10. 
The  three  expected  classes,  and  only  they,  appear.  There  is,  however, 
an  excess  of  the  lightest  grade  among  the  offspring  that  inevitably 
leads  one  to  suspect  that  the  actual  father  was  in  some  cases  lighter 
than  the  putative  father,  a  result  rendered  the  more  probable  from  the 
desire  of  light  mothers  to  have  white  children. 

Table  18. — This  is  the  reciprocal  of  table  15.  Of  the  2 -factor 
fathers  only  one  is  a  strict  mulatto  (B.  20).  By  such  a  father  four 
possible  classes  of  children  might  arise,  but  this  possibility  is  not  realized 
in  these  six  children.  For  the  rest,  expectation  is  that  the  two  classes 
of  I  factor  and  2  factors  for  N  shall  appear  in  equal  frequency,  although 
the  possibility  of  unions  giving  offspring  with  o  factor  and  3  factors 
is  not  excluded.  Actually  here,  as  in  table  15,  the  two  classes  (i  factor, 
2  factors)  are  realized  and  they  only,  and  the  frequency  is  approxi- 
mately equal. 

Table  ig. — This  is  the  most  complex  of  all  the  matings  and  yields 
the  greatest  variety  of  offspring.  In  three  cases,  at  least  (marked  b), 
both  parents  are  known  to  be  strict  (Fi)  mulattoes,  and  they  are  prob- 
ably so  in  others.  Two  mulatto  parents  should  yield  offspring  belong- 
ing to  all  five  classes  and  in  the  proportion  of  i  :  4  :  6  :  4  :  i.  Two- 
factor  parents  who  are  not  Fi  mulattoes  may  be  expected  to  give  i-, 
2-,  and  3 -factor  offspring  only,  so  in  this  case  the  proportions  of  the 
five  classes  will  be  o :  i :  2  :  i :  o.  It  is  impossible  to  say,  in  all  cases,  from 
which  of  the  given  parents  the  one  formula  is  to  be  expected  and  from 
which  the  other.  If  we  assume  that  half  of  the  matings  are  of  each 
kind  expectation  will  be  2.8:  22:  38.5:  22:  2.8.  This  is  fairly  close  to 
the  proportions  actually  obtained. 

Table  20. — Expectation  is  here  either  that  the  offspring  shall  fall 
into  two  classes  (if  the  father  is  a  strict  mulatto)  or  into  four  classes. 


RESULTS. 


23 


No  parent  is  a  strict  mulatto,  hence  the  proportions  of  o :  i :  3 :  3 :  i 
may  be  expected,  approximately.  The  formula  0:2.5:7.5:7.5:2.5 
does,  indeed,  approximate  to  the  result  obtained. 

Table  21. — Expectation  is  that  the  darker  parent  forms  germ-cells 
with  I  factor  and  with  2  factors  for  black,  while  the  lighter  parent 
forms  germ-cells  with  i  factor  and  o  factor.  Hence  the  classes  i,  2, 
or  3  factors  should  appear  among  the  children  in  the  proportions 
I,  2,  I,  or  expectation  for  the  nine  progeny  is  o:  2.25 :  4.5  :  2.25 :  o,  not 
very  far  from  realization. 

Table  22. — This  is  the  reciprocal  of  table  20.  Expectation,  cal- 
culated in  the  same  way  as  for  table  20,  is  0:0.6:  1.8:  1.8:0.6.  The 
result  contains  too  few  individuals  to  warrant  speaking  of  an  agree- 
ment. 

Table  2j. — Both  parents  form  gametes  with  either  i  or  2  factors; 
consequently  the  zygotes  will  have  2,  3,  or  4  factors  in  the  proportions 
of  1:2:1  or  expectation  is  0:0:4. 5:9:4. 5,  fairly  close  to  realization; 
the  shortage  of  the  deeper-colored  grades  is  probably  due  to  the  fact 
that  all  fraternities  include  young  children  whose  pigmentation  is  not 
fully  developed. 

Table  24. — The  father's  gametes  all  have  2  factors;  the  mother's 
either  i  or  none ;  consequently  there  may  be  expected  an  equal  number 
of  children  with  3  and  2  factors,  but  the  number  of  children  is  too 
small  to  test  the  hypothesis. 

We  may  now  set  side  by  side  expectation  and  realization  in  all 
the  foregoing  tables  and  compare  the  sums,  so  as  to  get  larger  numbers 
with  which  to  test  the  hypothesis  (table  25). 


Table  25. — Comparisons  of  realization  and  expectation  in  631  offspring. 


Classes  

Realization. 

Expectation. 

0 

I 

2 

3 

4 

0 

I 

a 

3 

4 

Table      8 . .  .  . 

9 

10 

II 

12 

13 

14 

IS 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21. . . . 
22.  .  . . 

23 

24 

Sum  .... 

9 
42 
II 

I 

14 
24 

14 

4 

S6'  ■ 

32 

14 

24 
87 
16 

"&" 

17 

18 

3 

2 
I 

I 
21 
13 

14 

23' 

8 
I 

4 
20 
SI 
S 
7 
3 
4 
4 

179 

I 
3 

"8" 

14 
II 

"  I 
13 

• 

•  • 

I 

I 
I 

I 

9 
49-3 
16 

19 
33.S 

■  d.'s 

'  "2.8 

•  •    •  • 

•  •    •  • 

49-5 

32 

14-5 

19 

67 
12 

13 
I8.S 

22 
2.S 

a.3 
0.6 

•  •  •  • 

16  ■ 
I4S 
X7 

33-5 

12 
S 
6.S 

18. 5 

38.S 
T.S 
45 
1.8 

4-5 

a 

5 

22 
-.. 
2.. 
I.l 
9 
a 

I 

J 
J 

V.8 

2.S 

0.6 
45     1 

....     i 

119 

278 

51 

4 

136.3 

as3.9 

181.8        49.6 

1 
10.4    1 

In  comparing  realization  with  expectation,  we  see  that  there  is  an 
actual  deficiency  in  the  o-factor  class  and  a  corresponding  excess  in 
the  i-factor  class,  which  leads  us  to  conclude  that  it  would  have  been 


24       HEREDITY   OF    SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE    CROSSES. 

well  to  have  made  the  limits  of  the  first  class  0-12  and  of  the  second 
13-25,  thus  equalizing  them  and  making  fuller  allowance  for  the  greater 
range  of  o-pigmentation  in  transparent-skinned  children  than  in  their 
thick-skinned  adults.  Otherwise  agreement  is  fair,  save  for  a  deficiency 
of  children  in  the  4-factor  group,  which  is  probably  due  to  the  fact 
that  some  of  the  yoimg  children  had  not  yet  fully  formed  the  dark 
grades  of  pigment.  On  the  whole,  a  comparison  of  the  realized  and 
expected  series  gives  conclusive  testimon}^  to  the  validity  of  the 
hypothesis  with  which  we  started.  There  are  two  gametic  (Jour  somatic) 
factors  for  black  in  negro  skin  pigmentation. 

VII.  Is  There  a  Sex-linkage  or  Sex-dimorphism  in  Skin  Color? 

It  is  well  known  that  in  the  Silkie  fowl  abundant  black  pigment 
is  formed  in  the  skin,  so  that  these  birds,  though  albinic  in  plumage, 
are  melanic  sports  in  the  formation  of  pigment  in  skin  and  connective 
tissues.  In  such  Silkie  fowl,  as  Bateson  and  Punnett  have  shown,  the 
inhibition  of  pigment  is  sex-linked,  appearing  in  the  daughters  of 
hybrids  between  Silkies  and  clear-skinned  fowl  only  when  carried  by 
their  fathers.  That  is,  if  the  father  is  non-Silkie  [i.e.,  non-pigmented) 
while  the  mother  is  pigmented,  the  daughters  (like  the  sons)  are  non- 
pigmented;  but  if  the  father  is  Silkie  {i.e.,  lacks  the  inhibitor  for  pig- 
mentation) the  daughters  alone  will  lack  it,  and  so  the  daughters  will 
have  black  skins.  It  is  known  that  conditions  are  reversed  in  mam- 
mals— that  sons  take  after  their  mothers.  Is  there  any  evidence  of  a 
preponderance  of  light  sons  from  matings  of  light  mothers  or  of  dark 
sons  from  matings  of  dark  mothers? 

I  have  tabulated  the  sexes  of  dark  children  of  fathers  with  no 
factor  by  mothers  with  2  factors  (table  10)  and  find  9  sons  and  12 
daughters ;  also  the  sexes  of  the  light  children  of  a  father  with  2  factors 
and  mother  with  no  factor  (table  17)  and  find  7  sons  and  7  daughters. 
Indeed,  the  sons  of  light  mothers  are  relatively  as  apt  to  be  dark  as 
light ;  and  the  sons  of  dark  mothers  are  relatively  as  apt  to  be  light  as 
dark.    There  is  no  sex-linkage  in  the  inheritance  of  human  skin  color. 

Similarly,  there  is  no  evidence  of  sex-dimorphism  in  skin  color. 
Schiller-Tietz  (1902)  states  that  J.  Al.  Hildenbrand  finds  the  negro 
women  on  the  average  somewhat  lighter  than  the  men  and  ascribes 
this  difference  to  the  greater  tanning  of  the  skin  of  the  males.  Our 
determinations  were  made  on  the  untanned  skin.  I  have  separated 
the  sexes  and  calculated  the  average  per  cent  of  N  in  each.  The  adult 
males  of  our  data  average  N  23  per  cent;  the  adult  females  N  24  per 
cent.  There  is  here  no  evidence  of  any  difference  of  pigmentation  in 
the  untanned  skin  of  the  two  sexes. 

Though  there  is  no  evidence  of  a  sex-dimorphism  in  adult  skin 
color  there  is  a  sex-difTerence  in  the  rate  of  developm.ent  of  pigmenta- 
tion.   Thus,  in  children  under  one  year  the  males  have  an  average  of 


RESULTS. 


25 


N  8.1  per  cent  and  the  females  of  13.3  per  cent.  Of  children  of  one 
year  old  and  under  two,  the  males  average  N  19.5  per  cent  and  the 
females  N  24.8  per  cent.  In  the  following  years  the  male  pigmentation 
catches  up  with  that  of  the  female. 

VIII.  Do  THE  Children  "Take  After"  the  Mother  and  F.\ther 

Equally? 

To  answer  this  question  table  26  was  drawn  up.     In  this  table  is 
given  the  distribution  into  classes  of  the  offspring  of  reciprocal  crosses. 


Table  26. — Frequency  of  each  class  of  the  offspring  of 

reciprocal  crossei 

.     '    e 

c              When  mother  is  darker. 

When  father  is  darker. 

.5       5 

« 

0 

1 

*^       *^ 

*^ 

0 

a 

0 

0 

:z: 

B 

(0 

-si 

V 

0 

OS 

o| 

O-II 

12-35  26-40 

41-55  56-77    o-ii 

I2-2S  26-40 

41-5556-77 

J3 

-,•*' 

«•  0 

c« 

0 

0  nt 

°  s 

1 

H 

■z 

2:- 

! 

( 
1 

9 

24 

0 

I 

42 

56 

I 

..     1 

13 

8 

I 

0 

' 

14 

24 

,   , 

' 

10 

13      1         0 

2 

II 

32 

21 

. . 

,  , 

17 

6      !         2 

0 

, . 

. . 

14 

8    '      4 

16 

3 

I 

4 

I 

8           I 

24 

I 

4 

I 

.    , 

, , 

. . 

,  , 

4 

IS 

8 

I 

2 

16 

8 

,  , 

,   , 

18 

9 

3 

I 

.    . 

. . 

,  . 

17         20 

,   , 

30 

S 

2 

3 

3           5 

ir          I 

.  , 

. . 

,   , 

33 

Sum .  . 

2 

3 

3 

•■ 

1 

•■ 

I 

3 

I 

1 

•• 

S3       107        35 

19 

2 

28 

SO 

31 

I 

■• 

Avge.  I 

lumbe 

r  of  fa 

ctors. 

1. 124 

I.04S                           ! 

The  excess  in  the  average  number  of  factors  in  the  children  when 
the  mother  is  the  darker  is  probably  without  biological  significance 
and  is  due  largely  to  the  circumstance  that  there  are  more  children 
(because  more  matings)  from  mothers  that  are  much  darker  than 
fathers  than  the  reverse;  and  this  tends  to  overweight  the  darkness 
of  the  progeny  from  matings  in  which  the  mother  is  the  darker.  If 
the  reciprocal  matings  of  tables  16  and  24  be  omitted  altogether  the 
average  number  of  factors  in  the  children  of  darker  mothers  falls  to 
1.03,  while  that  of  children  of  darker  fathers  is  i.oi.  The  determiners 
of  skin  color  carried  in  the  egg  and  those  carried  in  the  sporm  nrc  alike. 

IX.  Selection  of  Mates. — "Grading  Up"  to  White. 

Our  studies  throw  Hght  on  the  question  of  selection  of  mates  by 
persons  of  "colored"  blood,  for  we  have  in  our  studies  93  matings  of 
persons  whose  skin  color  has  been  quantitatively  determined.  It 
appears  that  of  these  93,  in  65  the  mother  is  the  darker  and  in  28  the 
father  is  the  darker.  That  is,  light  men  mate  with  and  are  accepted 
by  darker-skinned  women;  but  more  rarely  does  a  dark-skinned  man 
select  (or  become  accepted  by)  a  lighter-skinned  woman      It  will  he 


26       HEREDITY   OF    SKIN    COLOR   IN    NEGRO-WHITE    CROSSES. 


instructive  to  consider  the  various  matings  arranged  in  order  of  fre- 
quency (table  27). 

Table  27. — Relative  frequency  of  matings  of  persons  with  various  numbers  of  factors 

in  skin  color. 


Factors  in  skin  color 
of— 

Frequency 
of  this 
mating. 

Factors  in  skin  color 
of— 

Frequency 

of  this 

mating. 

Father 

Mother 

Father 

Mother 

I 
0 
2 
0 
0 
2 
I 
I 
2 
2 

I 

2 
2 
3 
I 
0 
2 
0 
3 

26 

24 

22 

12 

10 

9 

8 

8 

6 

5 

0 
3 
0 
I 
3 
3 
4 
I 
2 
3 
4 

4 
3 
0 
4 

I 
2 
I 
3 
4 
0 
0 

4 
4 
3 
2 
2 
2 
I 
0 
0 
0 
0 

As  will  be  seen  by  an  inspection  of  table  27,  the  commonest 
matings  are  between  persons  of  the  same  shade  of  light  to  medium 
color  and  then  between  a  white  man  and  a  light-,  medium-,  or  dark- 
colored  woman.  Matings  that  involve  dark-colored  males  come  at  the 
end  of  the  list,  partly  because  only  a  relatively  small  part  of  the  whole 
population  is  black.  However,  only  one  father  in  table  27  is  a  full- 
blooded  negro,  but  6  mothers  are.  Only  8  fathers  are  dark-colored  as 
opposed  to  19  dark  mothers.  It  would  seem,  then,  that  in  Bermuda  and 
Jamaica  dark  males  have  a  smaller  chance,  in  proportion  to  their 
numbers,  of  becoming  husbands  of  light-colored  women  than  light 
males  have,  and  probably  a  smaller  chance  of  becoming  fathers,  and 
this  selection  against  dark  males  must  have  a  real  effect  in  causing  the 
hybrids  to  become,  in  successive  generations,  lighter.  The  black  males 
marry  dark  females,  but  our  table  does  not  show  this  fact,  because  we 
studied  only  the  hybrid  portion  of  the  population.  At  the  State  Hos- 
pital at  Columbia,  South  Carolina,  Dr.  Babcock  and  I  questioned  a 
particularly  black  negro:  "Do  you  like  better  dark  or  Hght-colored 
girls?"    He  repHed:    "About  my  own  complexion,  sah." 

The  greater  discrimination  exercised  by  the  woman  makes  it  inter- 
esting to  tabulate  relative  frequency  of  their  choices,  and  this  is  shown 
in  table  28. 

Table  28. — Different  kinds  of  matings  made  by  females  in  order  of  frequency. 

No.  of  skin-color  factors  in  female o  o  o         o         o 

No.  of  skin-color  factors  in  male i  2  o  3  4 

Frequency  of  combination 8  6  3  o  0 

No.  of  skin-color  factors  in  female i  i  i  i  i 

No.  of  skin-color  factors  in  male I  0  2  3  4 

Frequency  of  combination 26  24  9  2  i 

No.  of  skin-color  factors  in  female 2  2  2  2  2 

No.  of  skin-color  factors  in  male 2  0  i  3  4 

Frequency  of  combination 22  12  8         2         0 

No.  of  skin-color  factors  in  female 3  3  3  3  3 

No.  of  skin-color  factors  in  male o  2  3  i  4 

Frequency  of  combination 10  s  4  o  o 

No.  of  skin-color  factors  in  female 4  4  4  4  4 

No.  of  skin-color  factors  in  male o  i  2  3  4 

Frequency  of  combination 4  2  o  o  o 


RESULTS.  27 

One  sees  that,  in  general,  and  excepting  the  tendency  of  a  light 
or  medium-colored  woman  to  mate  with  a  man  of  the  same  grade, 
the  matings  are  the  less  frequent  the  darker  the  grade  of  color  of  the 
selected  male.  All  of  this  selection  tends  toward  an  increase  in  the 
proportion  of  white  and  Hght-colored  offspring  in  successive  generations 
of  the  offspring  of  mulattoes. 

X.  The  Agreement  of  the  Hypothesis  with  Popular  Observation  and 

Nomenclature. 

In  all  countries  where  extensive  hybridization  has  taken  place 
between  black  and  white  a  nomenclature  has  grown  up  which  it  is 
interesting  to  consider.  This  nomenclature  indicates  a  rough  attempt 
to  express  the  proportion  of  Caucasian  (or  negro)  blood  as  measured 
by  skin  color.  We  may  examine  this  nomenclature  to  see  to  what 
extent  it  accords  with  our  fundamental  hypothesis. 

The  word  mulatto  is  widely  used  to  indicate  the  first  generation 
of  hybridization  between  black  and  white.  It  is  used  loosely  to  indi- 
cate any  person  with  a  grade  of  skin  like  that  of  a  mulatto — a  grade 
which,  as  we  have  seen,  is  expressed  quantitatively  by  26  to  40  per 
cent  of  black.  The  children  of  two  mulatto  parents  (according  to 
Johnston,  1910,  p.  55)  are  styled  cascos  in  Spanish  America,  but  in 
the  countries  where  we  have  studied  we  have  not  found  a  specific 
term  for  the  produce  of  this  mating.  This  is  the  more  significant  as 
the  mating  is  fairly  common.  Failure  to  apply  a  term  here  may  well 
be  a  consequence  of  the  great  variability  in  this  generation. 

To  the  produce  of  a  mulatto  and  a  pure  white  is  given  the  term 
quadroon.  This  corresponds,  on  the  average,  to  our  one-factor  or 
light-colored,  but,  as  we  have  seen  (table  10),  strict  quadroons  vary 
from  white  to  medium-colored.  This  term  is  also  used  practically  as 
synonymous  with  light-colored  and  does  not  always  imply  precise 
knowledge  of  ancestry. 

To  the  produce  of  a  mulatto  and  a  full-blooded  negro  is  applied 
(in  Jamaica  and  the  United  States)  the  term  "sambo;"  also  in  Ja- 
maica, "mangro  "  is  appHed  to  the  progeny  of  a  "sambo"  and  a 
full-blooded  negro.  This  mating  really  gives,  by  hypothesis,  a  variable 
progeny,  and  the  term  is  practically  applied  to  the  3 -factor  or  dark- 
colored  condition,  without  regard  to  ancestry.  Thus  for  two  mulatto 
parents  one-fourth  of  their  children  are  sambos. 

For  social  reasons  the  classification  of  the  matings  of  quadroons 
with  whites  has  been  carried  still  further.  But  here  the  basis  of 
classification  is  generally  the  pedigree  rather  than  the  skin  color.  The 
social  significance  of  this  will  be  discussed  later.  Here  attention  may 
be  called  to  the  nomenclature  used  in  Jamaica,  according  to  which  the 
child  of  a  quadroon  and  a  pure-bred  white  is  an  octoroon;  the  child 
of  an  octoroon  and  a  pure  Caucasian  is  a  mustifee;  the  child  of  a  musti- 


28        HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

fee  and  a  pure  white  is  a  mustifino.  With  such  extreme  "dilution" 
with  white  the  progeny  "pass  for  white"  optically,  socially,  and  politi- 
cally. It  is  supposed  that,  in  these  successive  matings  with  white, 
not  only  skin  color  but  also  the  form  of  the  hair  and  the  mental  traits 
approach  those  of  the  white. 

XL  The  Yellow  Element  in  the  Skin  Color. 

-'  The  xanthic  element  in  many  of  the  determinations  of  skin  color 
is  extraordinarily  high.  Where  the  per  cent  of  N  is  high  that  of  white 
and  yellow  are  both  low,  for  example  (in  Pedigree  6,  III,  2),  N  54, 
R  35,  Y  6,  W  5 ;  or,  the  lo-year-old  son  of  a  negro  woman  (N  60,  R  15, 
Y  9,  W  16)  and  an  unknown  man  has  a  skin  color  of  55,  28,  7,  10.  A 
full-blooded  black  (Pedigree  7,  I)  gives  77,  15,  3,  5.  The  reason  for 
this  is  simply  that  the  yellow  pigment  is  largely  hidden  by  the  black. 
On  the  other  hand,  in  the  light-skinned  offspring  of  black  and  white 
the  proportion  of  yellow  is  frequently  high.  A  few  examples  are  cited 
in  table  29. 


Table  29. — Examples  of  high  proportion  of  the  yellow  element  in  the  skin  color  of  hybrids. 


Subject. 


N. 


25,  I,  I  (Indian  blood)   .  .  . .  '     7     29 

8,  II,  2 S     29 

9,  III,  20 II  I  39 


R. 


10,  II,  I  (Fi   X  white) 15 

10    11,2 7 

10,  11,3 6 

13.  11.  7  (Chinese  ancestry)       8 
IS.  II,  3 '     5 


36 
32 
29 
38 
34 


30 
26 
25 
24 

25 
28 


W, 


34 
40 

25 
25 
36 

37 


25     29 
25     36 


Subject. 


N. 


J.  17,  I,  I  (quadroon  X  white):  10 
J.  19,  II,  II  (mixed  origin)  .  .  .'  5 
J.  19,  II,  IS  (mixed  origin)  .  .  J  9 
J.  19,  II,  16  (mixed  origin)  ...      9 

J.  33.  11.  2  (K  Chinese)    i     8 

J.  33.  II.  5  (%  Chinese)    !    8 

J.  33.  II,  6  (K  Chinese) 1  10 


R.    Y. 


43 
38 
38 
38 
38 
4<J 
40 


24 
25 
23 
25 
25 
23 
23 


w. 


23 
32 
30 
28 
29 
29 
28 


Several  conclusions  can  be  drawn  from  table  29:  (i)  the  "olive" 
complexion  of  many  mulattoes  is  due  to  the  uncovering,  by  dilution  of 
the  black  pigment,  of  the  yellow  pigment  that  is  present  in  the  negro 
as  well  as  Indian  and  Chinese  races  to  a  greater  extent  than  the  whites ; 
(2)  there  is  a  high  xanthic  tendency  in  particular  families,  e.g.,  J.  10, 
J- 19»  J-  33>(5)  families  with  Chinese  and  Indian  blood  have  descendants 
with  a  high  proportion  of  yellow. 


XII.  The  "Fixed  White,"  the  "Pass  for  White,' 

BY  Law." 


AND  the  "White 


Every  student  of  the  negro  X  white  crosses  at  Bermuda  and 
Jamaica  soon  hears  of  the  "fixed  white."  One  of  the  most  prominent 
Jam.aicans  thus  defined  the  term:  Fixed  whites  are  those  who  not 
only  "pass  for  white"  but  also  breed  all  pure  whites;  and  he  estimates 
that  five  or  six  generations  at  least  are  necessary  for  this.  "Pass  for 
white"  is  used  to  indicate  those  who  appear  white,  but  some  of  these 
may  have  had  darker  children.     In  Jamaica,  as  indeed  in  some  of 


RESULTS.  29 

our  Southern  States,  after  a  certain  dilution  with  white  blood  the 
descendant  of  an  African  becomes  white  by  law.  Thus  in  Florida  a 
white  man  may  not  legally  marry  a  mulatto,  a  quadroon,  or  an  octo- 
roon, but  may  marry  the  daughter  of  a  white  man  and  an  octoroon. 

Now,  what  biological  basis  have  the.se  social  distinctions?  It  fol- 
lows from  our  studies  that  persons  of  African  descent  whose  skin 
color  contains  lo  per  cent  or  less  of  black  pigment  will,  if  mated  uith 
a  like  person,  produce  only  white-skinned  children — i.e.,  \\'ith  less  than 
12  per  cent  of  black  in  the  skin.  Such  persons  constitute  "fi.xed  white." 
Many  persons  of  African  descent  who  have  between  lo  and  15  j)er 
cent  black  in  skin  color  are  really  hardly  darker  than  dark  brunets  or 
Spaniards;  they  ma}^  "pass  for  white,"  but  two  such  may  have  a 
medium-colored  child.  The  outcome  of  such  a  marriage  would,  then, 
satisfy  the  definition  of  "pass  for  white"  and  justify  the  appellation 
of  the  term  in  this  case.  As  for  the  "less  than  one-eighth  blood,"  it 
appears  from  our  study  that  a  mulatto  has  two  units  of  black,  a  quad- 
roon one  unit,  and  an  octoroon  no  unit  for  negro  black  i)igmentation. 
Certainly  the  offspring  of  such  an  octoroon  and  a  white  person  will, 
so  far  as  skin  color  goes,  be  a  "white  person."  Our  studies,  then, 
justify  the  legal  limitation,  so  far  as  skin  color  goes.  Indeed,  a  person 
of  one-eighth  blood  is,  so  far  as  skin  color  goes,  completely  "across 
the  line;"  married  to  white  there  is  no  expectation  of  dark->kinnod 
offspring,  though  the  hair  may  be  curly  and  the  lips  thick. 

XIII.  Reversiox  to  Bl.\ck  Skin  Color. 

This  brings  us  to  a  matter  of  great  social  moment  to  hundreds  of 
our  citizens,  namely,  the  possibility  of  a  rev^ersion  in  the  offspring  of  a 
white-skinned  descendant  of  a  negro  to  the  brown  skin  color.  There 
is  even  a  current  opinion  that  such  an  extracted  white,  married  to  a 
pure-bred  white,  may  have  a  "black"  child.  This  tradition  has  been 
used  to  create  dramatic  situations  in  novels  and  in  newspaper  "stories; " 
and  the  dread  of  this  tradition  hangs  over  many  a  marriage  that  might 
otherwise  be  quite  happ}'.  In  our  studies  no  clear  case  of  this  sort  has 
been  found,  and  our  fundamental  hypothesis  leads  us  not  to  expect  it. 
Nevertheless,  it  seemed  desirable  to  collect  any  folk-lore  on  the  sub- 
ject, and  an  attempt  was  made  to  do  this  in  Bermuda  and  Jamaica. 

At  Bermuda  the  following  cases  were  cited  of  "reversion,"  but 
there  was  no  means  of  checking  them.    They  are  given  as  "stories." 

An  Englishman  married  a  girl  of  a  very  good  and,  sui>posedly,  pure 
white  family.  They  moved  to  Nova  Scotia  and  had  a  colored  child.  It  is 
not  known  where  the  colored  blood  came  in.  This  story  was  told  by  an  uncle 
of  the  husband  aforesaid. 

An  English  soldier  married  a  supposedly  white  woman  in  Bemiuda. 
She  had  twins,  one  of  whom  was  white  and  one  colored.  The  mother  left 
both  babies  in  Bermuda  and  went  to  England. 


30       HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

At  Jamaica  I  asked  several  highly  intelligent  colored  and  white 
natives  if  they  knew  of  cases  of  "reversion"  to  black  skin  color.  All 
replies  agreed  in  holding  the  idea  mythical.  It  was  thought  to  have 
arisen  from  the  fact  that  two  very  light-colored  persons  might  be  the 
parents  of  a  medium-colored  child.  The  following  story,  cited  to 
Miss  Danielson,  can  be  explained  on  this  ground.  Mr.  C,  of  remote 
negro  origin,  shows  colored  blood  a  little,  and  more  so  as  he  grows 
older;  his  brother  shows  even  more  color  in  the  skin.  The  former 
married  a  "white"  woman  and  there  are  five  children,  of  whom  three 
show  colored  blood  in  skin  and  hair,  one  being  known  as  "Kinky" 
from  the  form  of  her  hair,  while  the  other  two  are  "dark"  (not  seen). 
The  brother  married  a  white  person  and  his  children  show  less  of  the 
colored  characteristics  than  he  himself  does.  This  first  mating  looks 
like  the  union  of  two  i -factor  individuals.  The  Bermuda  cases  are  so 
exceptional  that  I  think  one  is  justified  in  doubting  if  the  putative 
fathers  are  the  actual  ones. 

A  few  actual  pedigrees  from  Jamaica  showing  the  results  of  re- 
peated back-crossing  of  negro  progeny  upon  white  may  be  of  interest 
and  are  reproduced  here. 

Case  i. 

Gen.      I.  White  father,  black  mother. 

Gen.    II.  Mulatto  daughter ;  by  white  man  had 

Gen.  III.  Quadroon  daughter;  by  white  man  had 

Gen.  IV.  Octoroon  daughter,  has  curly,  but  not  at  all  kinky,  hair ;  by  a  white 

man  had 
Gen.    V.  (a)  Son,   with  olive   skin   and   straight   hair;    (6)  daughter,   like 

brother;  (c)  daughter,  fair. 

Case  2  (a  High-class  Jamaican  Family). 

Gen.      I.  White  father  and  negro  mother ;  had 

Gen.    II.  Mulatto  son;  by  white  woman  had 

Gen.  III.  Quadroon  daughter;  by  a  Frenchman  had 

Gen.  IV.  Octoroon  daughter.  She  married  a  "pass  for  white"  man  derived 
from  two  approximately  mulatto  parents  and  had 

Gen.  V.  A  white-skinned  son.  He  married  a  "pass  for  white"  woman 
whose  parents  ' '  passed  for  white. ' '    There  were  three  children : 

Gen.  VI.  (a)  A  son  with  fair  skin,  black  wavy  hair;  (6)  a  daughter  with 
dark  "olive"  skin  and  straight  black  hair;  (c)  a  son  with 
swarthy  complexion,  a  deeply  tanned  skin  with  much  yellow, 
dark  brown  eyes  and  black  hair  which  shows  a  trace  of  a 
tendency  to  curl. 

Case  3. 

Gen.      I.  White  father,  black  mother;  they  had 

Gen.    II.  A  mulatto  daughter;  she  married  a  white  man  and  had 

Gen.  III.  A  quadroon  son;  by  a  quadroon  he  had 

Gen.  IV.  A  white-skinned  son;  he  married  a  medium  woman;  there  were  in 

Gen.    V.  two  sons  who  passed  for  white;  one  of  these  by  a  Jewish  woman 

with  a  little  colored  blood  had 
Gen.  VI.  Four  sons,  all  fair  and  uniform  in  type. 


RESULTS.  31 

Case  4. 

Gen.      I.  White  father,  a  black  mother; 
Gen.    II.  Their  mulatto  daughter  had  by  a  white  man 
Gen.  III.  a  "pass  for  white"  who  married  a  white  woman  and  had 
Gen.  IV.  Three  sons  and  a  daughter;  (a  and  b)  daughters,  "olive"  .skin, 
European  ("good")  hair;  (c)  fair  skin  and  good  hair  (of  a 
"European  type");  (d)  fair  skin,  but  with  "suspicious"  hair. 
Compare  also  the  Jamaican  pedigrees  34,  40. 

Cases  5  to  7  were  given  by  an  intelligent  colored  physician ;  the  first  one 
is  of  his  owTi  family. 

Case  5. 

Gen.  I.  Father,  a  colored  man,  about  15  per  cent  N,  features  Eur  --. ; 
mother  English,  with  light  brown  hair  and  eyes;  nine  *.        ;   -a. 

Gen.  II.  (a)  Son,  as  dark  as  father;  (6)  son,  fair,  straight  brown  hair,  green 
eyes;  (c)  son,  olive  skin,  black  wavy  hair,  other  negro  features; 
(d)  daughter,  hke  (c)  with  black,  slightly  wavy  hair;  (e) 
daughter,  skin  a  light  brunet,  hair  medium  brown,  eyes  light 
brown;  married  an  Enghshman  and  has  two  sons  and  one 
daughter  who  are  "absolutely  white,"  (/)  daughter,  olive  skin, 
dark  eyes  and  straight  dark  brown  hair,  married  a  white 
planter  and  their  children  show  no  color,  and  some  have 
flaxen  hair;  (g)  daughter,  European  features,  straight  nose, 
gray  eyes,  light  brown  wavy  hair,  fair  skin;  (It)  son,  light 
brown  eyes,  perfectly  straight  black  hair,  white  skin;  married 
a  distinctly  colored  girl,  with  olive  skin  and  gray  eyes;  they 
have  a  son  with  milk-white  skin  and  reddish,  slightly  curly 
hair;  (i)  son,  European  features,  hght  brown  eyes  and  hair, 
and  white  skin. 

Case  6  (A  Promine.nt  Jamaican  Family). 

Gen.  I.  Father  has  a  little  colored  blood  but  barely  shows  it;  mother  has 
straight  black  hair,  shows  colored  blood  in  the  sldn,  would 
pass  for  a  dark  Spaniard.    They  have  six  children. 

Gen.  II.  (a)  Son,  looks  like  a  tanned  European,  features  good,  eyes  gray, 
hair  light  brown  cropped  close  (curly?);  (b)  son,  has  very 
fair  hair,  slightly  inclined  to  curl,  skin  pink  and  white,  face 
florid;  passes  in  "the  States"  for  white,  as  does  also  his  wife, 
who  has  a  little  colored  blood ;  their  child  has  blue  eyes  and 
shows  no  trace  of  "color;"  (c)  son,  good  features,  blue  eyes. 
fresh  complexion;  married  an  English  girl  and  their  child 
appears  pure  white;  (d  and  e)  two  sons  whose  skin  is  darker 
than  their  parents  and  hair  distinctly  negroid;  (/)  daughter, 
shows  no  traits  of  "color,"  married  a  European,  and  has  white 
children. 

Case  7. 

Gen.  I.  A  man  of  wealth  with  blue  eyes  and  wliite  skin  had  by  a  colored 
woman  with  blue  eyes  and  "walnut"  skin  (say  15  to  20  per 
cent  N)  two  daughters. 

Gen.  II.  They  will  pass  for  white  in  any  country,  (a)  married  an  English- 
man and  has  white  children ;  (6)  married  a  blue-eyed  man  with 
a  little  colored  blood  which  does  not  show;  there  are  two 
blue-eyed,  light-haired  children. 


32 


HEREDITY   OF    SKIN    COLOR    IN   NEGRO-WHITE    CROSSES. 


F.    DISCUSSION    OF    INHERITANCE    OF    TRAITS    ASSOCIATED 

WITH  SKIN  COLOR. 


I.  Eye  Color. 

As  a  by-product,  our  data  afford  an  answer  to  the  question :  Does 
the  inheritance  of  eye  color  in  black  X  white  crosses  follow  the  same 
rule  as  that  already  established  for  eye  color  among  whites  ?  The  data 
collected  on  eye  color  have  been  analyzed.  From,  the  fact  that  the 
fraternities  studied  were  a  highly  selected  lot  (viz.,  chiefly  offspring  of 
hybrids),  certain  matings,  e.g.,  blue  X  blue,  are  absent  or  rare.  In 
table  30  "hazel"  means  an  eye  that  has  brown  pigment  only  in  a  nar- 
row band  around  the  pupil,  the  rest  of  the  iris  being  blue;  "green"  is 
blue  with  yellow  pigment,  but  with  brown  pigment  practically  or 
absolutely  lacking;  "yellow  hazel"  or  "yellow  brown"  implies  the 
presence  of  3'ellow  added  to  the  other  type  of  pigmentation;  "light 
brown,"  "dark  brown,"  and  "black"  are  applied  to  various  degrees  of 
development  of  the  melanic  pigment  over  the  whole  area  of  the  iris. 
Table  30  is  arranged  in  increasing  order  of  pigmentation  of  the  parents. 

Table  30. — Distribution  of  eye  color  in  offspring  of  parents  zvith  given  amount  of  iris 

pigmentation. 

(A)  PARENTS  HAZEL  X  HAZEL. 


Reference 

OfEspring. 

Ancestry. 

No. 

Bl«.    Gr. 

Hazel 

Lt.br. 

I 

I 

M.br. 

D.br. 

I 
I 

Y.h. 

F. 

i 
FF.    j    FM. 

M. 

MF.    '    MM. 

B.  29 .. 

B.  29 i  .. 

B.49 1  .. 

... 

3 

I 
I 

S 

2 

hazel 
hazel 

hazel 

blue    :  d.  br. 

blue     1  d.  br. 

hazel 
y.  haz. 

haz  (?)' 

1 

Total ...     

2 

(B)  PARENTS  LIGHT  BROWN   X  BLUE. 

B.  27 

3  1    ... 

. . . 

... 

... 

. .    1    blue 





It.  br. 



(C)  PARENTS  LIGHT  BROWN  X  HAZEL. 

B.  33 

Total.  .  . 

.. 

2 
I 
2 

2 
2 

I 

2 
5 

I 

hazel 
It.  br. 
It.  br. 



.... 

It.  br. 
hazel 
hazel 

.... 



5 

4 

I 

7 

I 

(D)  PARENTS  BROWN  X  BLUE. 

B.  33  .... 

J;:;:;:; 

Total .  .  . 

I 
I 

2 

I 

I 
r 
I 

3 

br. 
br. 
br. 

.... 

.... 

bl. 

br. 
br. 

I 

...   1    ... 

«Bl.,blue;  Gr., green;  Lt.  br.,  light  brown;  M.br.,  medium  brown;  D.br.,  dark  brown;  Y.  h.,  yellow-hazel 


INHERITANCE   OF   TRAITS   ASSOCIATED    WITH    SKIN    COLOR.    33 

Table  30. — Distribution  of  eye  color  in  offspring  of  parents  with   given  amount  of  ins 

pigmentation. — Continued. 


(E)  PARENTS  BROWN  X  HAZEL 

•slry. 

Reference 
No. 

Offspring.                                                                 Ancc 

Bl. 

0,. 

Hazel' Lt.br. 

M.br. 

D.br.  Y.h.       F. 

FF. 

PM. 

M. 

MP.    i    MM. 

B.  24 

...    1    ...     '. 

haz.(?) 

br. 

bl.           br 

B.  26. 

I 

1 

br.  (?) 

hazel 

J.  4. 

2           3 

hr. 

hazel 

J.  4. 

•    ■    ■ 

I            1 

. 

. . 

br. 

hazel 

J.  8. 

I            I 

o 

hazel        .... 

br.  (?) 

J-  9. 

..    '     9 

..      \       2           . 

hazel   ,    blue 

br. 

J.  16. 

II 

hazel 

m.  hr 

J.  17. 

. . .        ... 

3               1 

.      br. 

hazel 

J.  49. 

■;     '   . .. 

I 

... 

.      br. 

hazel 

J.  54. 

I 

3 

... 

haze"; 

m.  br. 

Total... 

3 

... 

9     JX6 

6 

8 

(F)  PARENTS  BROWN  X  LIGHT  BROWN. 

J.   7 

3 

2 

.      br.    ?) 

It.  br. 

J.13 

. . . 

2 

3 

.      br. 

.... 

.... 

It.  br. 

.... 

J.  33 

Total  . . 

•• 

I 

S 

It.  br. 

m.  br. 

.. 

3             2 

10 

(G)  PARENTS  BROWN  X  BROWN. 

B..7 

I 

4 

.      br.  (?) 

br. 

br. 

B.  27 

2             2 

I      br. 

br. 

....         . 

B.  30 

I 

br. 

br. 

hasel     br 

J.   7 

2 

I 

.      br. 

m.  br. 

....        • 

J.   9 

I 

... 

br. 

br.  (?) 

J.   9 

3 

3 

.      br.  (?) 

br. 

blue       br 

J.   9 

2 

br. 

br. 

br 

.  (?) 

br. 

J.  41 

2 

3 

I 

m.  br. 

br.  (?) 

.... 

J.  S6 

Total .  . . 

3 

2 

9 

m.  br. 

I 

hazel 

m.  br. 

1 

2             11 

5 

(H)  DARK  BROWN   X  BLUE. 

B.  10 I  .  . 

3           I 

3 

2     d.br.(?) 

d.  br. 

d.br. 

blue 

br.           b 

ue 

B.  14 

I 

.      bl. 

•  •   .  • 

dk.  br.     . 

,  , 

B.  23 

2 

... 

.     d.br.(?) 

.... 

dk.  bl.      . 

B.  29 

4          I 

3 

.      bl. 

dk.  br.      . 

J.  48 

I 

I     bl. 

dk.  br.      . 

L.S 

2 



... 

.     bl. 
3 

dk.  br.     bl 

ue 

Total ...      s 

... 

7           3 

... 

7 

(I)  DARK  BROWN  X  HAZEL. 

B.  19 

I           r 

I    d.br.(?) 

hazel 

B.2S 

I 

I           I 

... 

hazel 

... 

dk.  br. 

B.  28 

1 

I 

.     dk.  br. 

dk. 

br. 

die 

.br. 

hazel 

hazel 

B.  29 i 

I 

5 

hazel 

bl. 

dk 

.br. 

dk.  br. 

B.  29 

3 

.     dk.  br. 

bl. 

dk 

.br. 

d.haze! 

J.  14 

hazel 

dk.  br. 

.  ; 

J.  A 

.     dk.  br. 

hazel 

T.  34 

2 

8 

hazel 

dk.  br. 

J.  52 

I 

I 

.     dk.  br. 

hazel 

J.  59 

I 

3 

.     dk.  br. 

I 

hazel 

Total ...      3 

I 

8        II 

3 

19 

(K)  DARK  BROWN  X  LIGHT  BROWN. 

B.  16 

4 

I 

.    d.br.(?) 

It.  br. 

J.  19 

I 

3 

3 

.     dk.  br. 

.... 

.... 

It.  br. 

, , 

i:t::::. 

I 

I 

I 

.     dk.  br. 

. 

.   •   .  > 

It.  br. 

hasel 

4 

3 

I 

I 

.     dk.  br. 

dark     '    .... 

I 

It.  br. 

Total 

... 

I 

I           3 

5 

5 

34       HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

Table  30. — Distribution  of  eye  color  in  offspring  of  parents  with  given  amount  of  iris 

pigmentation. — Continued. 


(L)  DARK  BROWN  X  BROWN. 


Reference 

No. 

I 

Offspring. 

Ancestry. 

}1.      Gr. 

Hazel 

Lt.br. 

M.br. 

D.br. 

Y.h. 

F. 

FF. 

FM. 

M. 

MF. 

MM. 

J.  31. 

it.. 

J.  53- 
J.  55. 

I 

I 
2 

I 

2 
. 

I 
2 

I 

I 

I 
4 
6 

2 

5 

I 

dk.  br. 
br.  (?) 
br.  (?) 
br. 

m.  br. 
br.  (?) 
dk.  br. 
br. 
m.  br. 

br 
b'r 

br! 

br. 

dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 
dk.br. 
J  dk.  br. 
m.  br. 
dk.  br. 
dk.br. 

dk'.  br. 

br 

Total . .  . 

•      ■•• 

I 

4 

6 

19 

I 

(M)  DARK  BROWN  X  DARK  BROWN. 

B.  25 

J-  19 

J-  20 

J-   2J 

J-27 

J-  29 

J-  30 

J.  38 

J-  38 

J-  38 

]::!::::  : 

J-62 _. 

Total ...     . 

[ 
[ 

4 
2 

3 
5 
3 
6 
5 
4 
6 
3 
3 
2 

5 
2 
2 
3 
4 

I 

I 
I 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 
d.br.(?) 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 
d.br.(?) 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 

.       ... 

... 

2 

6 

S6 

3 

(N)  BLACK  X  DARK  BROWN. 

J.  18. 

J.   38. 

■       ■■• 

2 
I 

3 
4 

n. 
n. 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 





Total 

... 

.       ... 

... 

... 

3 

7 

Since  our  matings  did  not  include  two  pure  blue-eyed  parents, 
the  simplest  case  of  heredity  (the  mating  of  two  negatives)  can  not 
be  tested  here.  Hazel  we  have  regarded  as  usually  a  simplex  (hetero- 
zygous) condition,  and  on  this  hypothesis  two  hazel  parents  should 
produce  blue-eyed,  brown-eyed,  and  hazel-eyed  offspring  again;  but 
until  we  know  how  many  factors  are  involved  in  brown  iris  color  we  can 
not  say  in  what  percentage  of  cases  blue  should  reappear.  Actually,  in 
section  (A),  in  9  offspring  there  is  i  case  of  dark  brown  iris;  none  of 
blue,  and  5  of  hazel  again.  But  in  sections  (E)  and  (7),  when  hazel 
is  used  as  one  parent,  a  few  blues  appear  in  the  offspring;  actually 
6  in  87.  On  the  hypothesis  of  two  factors  for  black  in  eye  color  we 
might  expect  i  child  in  4,  in  these  two  matings,  to  be  blue-eyed.  On 
the  hypothesis  of  four  factors  for  black  in  eye  color  we  should  look  for 
I  blue-eyed  child  in  16.  The  actual  result  favors  the  hypothesis  of  four 
factors  for  black  in  iris  pigmentation  of  negroes.    Brown  X  brown  gives 


INHERITANCE   OF   TRAITS    ASSOCIATED    WITH    SKIN    COLOR.    35 

occasionally  blue,  which  indicates  that  persons  with  brown  eye  color 
may  carry  germ-cells  without  the  factor  for  iris  pigment ;  but  from  two 
dark  brown  parents,  or  even  a  dark  brown  X  brown  union  no  blue- 
eyed  offspring  are  recorded.  This  result  supports  the  hypothesis  that 
dark  eye  color  rarely  forms  "blue-eyed"  germ-cells;  that  light  brown 
and  hazel  represent  the  heterozygous  forms  of  eye  color. 

II.  Hair  Color. 

In  studying  the  heredity  of  hair  color  we  have  first  to  recognize 
that  hair  pigment  has  a  development  and,  consequently,  the  reported 
condition  of  a  young  child  can  not  be  compared  with  that  of  its  parents. 
Thus,  as  Holmes  and  Loomis  (1909,  p.  55)  point  out,  there  are  twice 
as  many  light  brown  children  under  16  as  over,  but  only  half  to  one- 
third  as  many  blacks  under  as  over  16  years.  The  typical  hair  color 
of  white  infants  is  flaxen;  only  slowly,  if  at  all,  is  the  mature  dark 
brown  acquired.  In  the  case  of  the  Bermudian  and  Jamaican  hybrids 
much  testimony  was  gathered  as  to  the  development  of  the  pigmenta- 
tion of  the  hair  of  the  head.  Thus  it  was  repeatedly  stated  that  a 
black-haired  person  was  tow-headed  as  a  child,  or  a  two-year-old  boy 
who  has  now  dark  brown  hair  formerly  had  it  golden;  not  infrequently 
the  hair  of  a  one-  or  two-year-old  child  was  much  darker  at  the  base, 
indicating  an  increasing  activity  in  the  production  of  hair  pigment. 
On  the  other  hand,  there  is  some  testimony  to  show  that  the  hair  at 
birth  is  often  black;  that  the  permanent  hair,  which  soon  appears,  is 
flaxen,  to  become  darker  as  the  child  develops.  For  example,  in  pedi- 
gree B  8,  Mrs.  J.  has  dark  brown  hair  and  IMr.  J.  has  black  hair;  both 
are  colored.  All  of  their  children  were  bom  with  black  hair,  which 
began  to  lighten  in  a  few  weeks,  except  the  youngest  child's.  The 
hair  color  of  the  children  is  now  as  follows:  (i)  11  years  old,  medium 
brown;  (2)  8  years,  light  brown,  golden  about  her  face;  (3)  7  years, 
light  brown,  golden  about  her  face;  (4)  2  years,  dark  brown. 

Pedigree  B  25,  d^,  3  years  old.  Hair  was  dark  brown  when  born;  became 
lighter,  is  now  light  brown  with  golden  curled  ends.  A  cousin  of  the  fore- 
going, 9  months  old,  had  black  hair  when  bom,  but  it  was  replaced  by  bright 
red  hair. 

Pedigree  B  27,  9,4  years  old.  Her  hair  was  nearly  black  when  she  was 
bom ;  it  came  in  lighter  and  is  now  gro\\'ing  dark  again  (medium  brown) . 

Pedigree  J  10.  All  3  children  were  bom  NN-ith  black  hair,  (i)  9,4  years, 
light  brown  hair;  (2)  9  ,  2J2  years,  flaxen;  (3)  cT,  i  year,  reddish-golden  hair. 

Dr.  J.  H.  Shawe,  of  Huntington,  N.  Y.,  a  family  physician  of 
large  experience,  who  has  attended  at  labor  many  mothers  belonging 
to  a  great  range  of  nationalities,  states  that  while  the  infants  of  Scandi- 
navian stock  have  always  light  head  hair  at  birth,  tho.se  of  South 
Italian  stock  usually  have  black  hair  at  birth.  About  the  color  of  the 
young  permanent  hair  in  these  Italians  he  was  unable  to  say  anything. 


36        HEREDITY   OF    SKIN    COLOR    IN    NEGRO-AVHITE    CROSSES. 

All  of  my  observations  made  at  Columbia,  South  Carolina,  and 
at  Richmond,  Virginia,  showed  that  children  of  dark-colored  parents 
have,  at  birth,  brown  hair  which  darkens  gradually. 

Eug.  Fischer  (1909,  p.  1050)  has  described  the  hair  color  of  the 
"Rehobother  Bastardfolk"  of  Damaraland,  descendants  of  the  Boers 
(of  Dutch  origin)  and  the  Hottentots.    He  says: 

Die  Haarfarbe  ist  beim  Erwachsenen  so  gut  wie  stets,  dunkel,  was  sich 
bei  solcher  Mischung  leicht  erklart,  das  vorhandene  Pigment,  auch  in  relativ 
geringer  Menge  herrscht  xiber  die  Eigenschaft  "  Fehlen  des  Pigments  "  leicht 
vor.  Ganz  auffallig  ist  nun,  sie  dunkeln  dann  beim  Heranwachsen  sehr 
stark  nach. 

Fischer  adds  that  it  occurs  to  him  that  all  darkening  of  hair  in 
later  life  may  be  the  result  of  h^^bridization,  for  Bantu  negroes,  Hot- 
tentots, and  many  Mongolians  are  black-haired  even  as  children  and 
do  not  darken  subsequently.  This  suggestion  is,  it  may  be  added, 
quite  in  harmony  with  known  facts  of  the  slow  development  of  pig- 
mentation in  simplex  or  heterozygous  hybrids — the  diluted  enzyme  is 
retarded  in  its  action. 

Table  31. — Hair  color  in  negro  X  white  crosses. 
(A)  BLACK  X  BLACK. 


Reference    „^.^    y 


No 


br. 


B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 


3.. 
3.. 
4.. 
6.. 
7 .  • 
II. 
13. 
13. 
21. 
21. 

21. 
21. 
21. 
24- 
27. 
29. 
31. 
1.   . 

7-- 
9.. 
9.. 
19. 

32. 
36. 
26. 
33. 
38. 

44- 
SI. 
SI. 
51. 
59. 
61. 
62. 


Total . 


It.  '  m. 
br.  I  br. 


d. 
br. 


2     16     28     30     6s 


N. 


cl.r, 


dk. 
r. 


d.br.r. 


N 

N 

N 
N  (?) 
N  (?) 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 

N 


FF. 


N 


dk, 

N 
m 
It 


(?) 
br. 
br. 


N 


FM. 


N 

n' 

n' 

n' 

N 
N 

N 


N 


M. 


N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 


MF. 


MM. 


dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 

It.'br. 


N 


N 
N 


N 


<:  fl'x,   flaxen;    y.  br.,   yellow  brown;    lt.br.,  light  brown;    m.  br.,  medium  brown;    d.  br.,  dark  brown; 

N.,  black;  cl.  r.,  clear  red;  dk.  r.,  dark  red  ;  d.  br.  r.,  dark  brown-red. 

''  "Mulatto,"  one  is  s  years,  the  other  i6  months  old. 


INHERITANXE   OF   TRAITS   ASSOCIATED   WITH    SKIN    COLOR. 


37 


Table  31. — Hair  color  in  negro  X  white  crosses. — Continued. 


(B)  BLACK  X  DARK  BROWN. 


Reference 
No. 


fl'-    li. 


B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
B. 
J. 
J- 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 
J. 


7 ' 

17 

21 

21 

21 

23 

24 

25 

28 

29 

29 

33 

36 

2 

3 

4 

S 

9 !   .. 

10 i  'i 

31 •■ 

47 i   .. 

51 .. 

SO :  . . 

52 M*! 

53 -. 

S3 .. 

55 

56 'I 


Total . 


It. 
br. 


14 


m.     d. 
br.  i  br. 


17 


SI 


N.  cl.r 


27 


dk. 


d.br. 


FF. 


N 
dr.br. (?) 
dk.  br. 

N 

N 

N 

X 
dk.  br. 

N 
dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 

N 
dk.  br. 

N 

N 

N 
dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 
dk.br. 

!  N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
N 
dk.  br. 
N 


dk 
dk 


dk 


br. 
br. 


br. 
br. 


FM. 


N 
N 


dk.  br. 

I      N 
N 


br. 


N 

N 

n' 


1     M. 

MF. 

-N 

....    1 

N 

dk.  br. 

dk.br. 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

N 

U^ht 

dk.br. 

dk.  br. 

N 

N 

m.  br. 

dk.  br. 

N 

dk.br. 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

N 

N 

N 

dk.br. 

dk.  br. 

dk.br. 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

N 

N 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

MM. 


br 
die 


dk 


br. 


N 


br. 


(C)  BLACK  X  MEDIUM  BROWN. 


B.  7.... 
B.  14... 
B.  16... 
B.  19... 
B.  21... 
B.  29... 
B.  33... 
J.  9.... 
J.  42... 
J.  SI... 
J.  55... 
J.  S3... 


Total . 


12    '17 


br? 
Ibr. 

I  br? 
i  m.  br. 
,  m.  br. 

!      N 

,  br. 
N 
N 
br. 


br 


N 

N 

m.  br. 

N 

N 

N 
m.  br. 
m.  br. 
I       N 
m.  br. 
m.  br. 

N 


N 

It.  br. 


br. 
br. 


N 


(D)  BLACK  X  LIGHT  BR 

OWN. 

J.  14 

-• 

I 
1 

..      3 

•• 

■• 

It.  br. 



N 





(E)  BLACK  X  YELLOW  BROWN. 

B.  10 <  .. 

I       I 

4 

•• 

3      .... 

1               1 

N      i      N            N 

1 

1 
yel.  br.   br.           y.  br. 

(F)  BLACK  X  AUBURN. 


B.  30. . 

B.  33.. 
J.  30. . 


Total . 


N 

sandy 

N 


aub. 
N 
r.  br. 


br. 


br. 


(G)  BLACK  X  CLEAR  RED. 

J.  48 

•• 

..|.. 

I 

•• 

•• 

•• 

•• 

I 

d.  r. 



N 





"15  years  old;  doubt  of  mother's  chastity. 
*  Reddish-golden;    i    year   old;   all   black- 
haired  at  birth. 


'  Flaxen  when  2  years  old. 
•'  I  year  old. 
•  3  years  old. 


•'  EnRlishman. 
'  White  woman. 


38        HEREDITY   OF    SKIN    COLOR    IN    NEGRO-WHITE    CROSSES. 


Table  31. — Hair  color  in  negro  X  white  crosses. — Continued. 
(H)  BLACK  X  DARK  RED  BROWN. 


Reference 
No. 


J.  4S.. 


fl'x 

y. 

br. 

It. 
br. 

m. 
br. 

d. 
br. 

N. 

cl.r. 

dk. 
r. 

d.  br.  r. 

F. 

FF. 

FM. 

4 

3 

I 

•• 

•• 

N 

M. 


d.br.r. 


MF. 


MM. 


(I)  DARK  BROWN  X  DARK  BROWN. 


B.  13 

"I 

I 

2 

I 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

N 

B.  23 

2 

I 

I 

,    , 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

B.2S 

I 

I 

I 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

N 

B.  25 

.1 

dk.  br. 

N 

dk.  br. 

B.  28 

f-i 

I 

2 

dk.  br.    n 

I.  br. 

N 

dk.  br. 

J.4 

2 

I 

I 

dk.  br. 

.... 

dk.  br. 

J.  16 

•  • 

2 

,    , 

,    , 

dk.br.    It 

.br. 

dk.  br. 

J.  17 

3 

dk.  br. 

m.  br. 

dk.  br. 

J.  19 

I 

2 

3 

dk.  br. 

.... 

dk.  br. 

J.  20 

I 

. , 

2 

dk.  br. 

.... 

dk.  br. 

J.  27 

2 

2 

I 

. 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

J.  29 

.3 

. 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

J.  38 

I 

• 

dk.  br.  1 

dk.  br. 

J.  48 

.S 

2 

, 

dk.  br.  1 

dk.  br. 

J.si 

2 

. 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

J-  40 

=  2 

I 

2 

• 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 

Total .  . . 

I 

3 

10 

14 

27 

s 

• 

• 

•• 

■• 

(K)  DARK  BROWN  X  MEDIUM  BROWN. 


B.  17. 
B.  25. 
B.  26. 
B.  27. 
B.  29. 
J.  8.. 

Total . 


3 

m.  br. 

dk.  br. 

3 

br? 

dk.  br. 

2 

2 

dk.  br. 

m.  br. 

2 

2 

2 

2 

I 

br? 
br. 

dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 

N? 

3 

2 

I 

•• 

br. 

dk.  br. 

•  • 

•• 

S 

9 

7 

I 

•■ 

•• 

N 


(L)  DARK  BROWN  X  LIGHT  BROWN. 


J.  23.. 
J.  49. . 
B.  27  . 


Total . 


1 

I 
I 

I 
I 

2 

3 

2 
I 

I 

•• 

, 



It.  br. 
It.  br. 
It.  br. 





dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 

6 

3 

I 

•• 

•• 



"  9  months  old. 


''  At  2  years. 


'  Young. 


br. 


(M)  DARK  BROWN  X  CLEAR  RED. 

B.  33 

L.S 

•• 

I 

3 

2 

2 

I 
I 

cl.  r. 
red 

n. 

dk.  br. 

dk.  br. 
dk.  br. 

Total .  . . 

I 

S 

2 

•• 

2 

■• 



A  study  of  table  31  shows  clearly  that  as  the  amount  of  black 
decreases  in  the  parents  it  diminishes  in  the  offspring.  Thus  in  black 
X  black  matings  the  commonest  grade  of  the  children  is  black;  in 
black  X  dark  brown  or  medium  brown,  and  in  dark  brown  X  dark 
brown  matings  the  commonest  grade  in  the  children  is  dark  brown; 
but  in  the  dark  brown  X  medium  brown  or  light  brown  matings  it  is 
medium  brown.  The  cases  are  not  numerous  where  the  children  are 
darker  than  the  darker  parent,  and  very  light  children   ("flaxen") 


INHERITANCE   OF   TRAITS    ASSOCIATED    WITH    SKIN   COLOR.    39 

rarely  occur  in  these  hybrids  except  in  extreme  youth  (5  years  or 
under).  Red  hair  may  be  carried  by  dark  brown-haired  parents,  and 
reappears  in  their  children,  especially  when  young,  but  often  becomes 
later  covered  over  by  brown  pigment.  It  is  pretty  clear  that  the  fac- 
tors involved  in  hair  pigmentation  are  so  numerous  that  their  analysis 
will  yield  only  to  a  careful,  quantitative  study. 

III.  Hair  Form. 

The  forms  of  the  head  hair  constitute  a  series  that  is  apparently 
continuous.  Anthropologists,  however,  recognize  only  five  varieties: 
straight,  wavy,  curly,  frizzy,  and  woolly  (Topinard,  1894,  p.  35;  Den- 
icker,  1906,  p.  38).  These  types  differ  not  only  in  general  curvature 
but  also  in  cross-section,  for  the  head  hair  is  elliptical  on  cross-section 
and  the  ratio  of  the  long  to  the  short  axis  is  said  to  be  as  100  to  85  in 
straight-haired  races  like  the  North  American  Indian,  and  as  100  to 
34  in  Papuans,  100  to  50  in  Hottentots,  100  to  60  in  negroes.  There 
seems  to  be  a  rather  close  connection  between  the  degree  of  flatten- 
ing of  the  hair  and  the  degree  of  its  curvature,  and  anthropologists 
commonly  ascribe  the  curving  to  the  flattening.  The  terms  relating 
to  general  hair  form  have  been  defined  as  follows  by  Waldeyer  (1884, 

P-  51)- 

Straight  hair  is  characterized  by  the  absence  of  any  wavy  or  spiral  curva- 
ture. Wavy  hair  shows  wave-like  curves  in  one  plane  or  in  a  slightly  twisted 
surface,  the  distance  from  convexity  to  convexity  being  great — usually  several 
centimeters.  Curly  hair  is  spirally  curved,  especially  at  its  free  ends.  It  is 
to  be  noted  that  curly  hair  when  cut  close  no  longer  reveals  its  true  character. 
Frizzled  hair  has  a  close  curl  even  from  the  base.  Woolly  hair,  as  used  com- 
monly in  speaking  of  people,  is  closely,  spirally  curled  hair  which  does  not 
grow  to  the  length  of  more  than  2  or  3  cm.  and  is  apt  to  form  tufts  (Topinard, 
i894,p.35i;  Waldeyer,  1884, pp.  5 1-53).*  But  between  these  typical  conditions 
all  transitions  occur. 

Table  32. — Hair  form  in  negro  X  white  crosses. 
(A)  STRAIGHT  X  STRAIGHT. 


Reference 
No. 

4.1 

> 

3 
0 

> 

Semi- 
woolly. 

2J 

"o 
0 

1^' 

S 

fa 

MM. 

J.  38 

J-Si 

Total .  . . 

I 

6 

■   .  > 

■     .     > 

... 

•   >  > 

. . . 

■   ■  • 

strt. 
strt. 

.... 

strt. 
strt. 

.... 

.... 

7 

... 

... 

..-. 

... 

... 

... 









*  At  the  Good  Samaritan  Hospital  (colored)  at  Columbia,  South  Carolina,  I  got  hair 
from  a  negro  (skin  about  N  65  per  cent)  which  formed  a  spiral  of  about  4  mm.  diameter. 
The  average  thickness  of  the  hair  mat  on  the  man's  head  was  not  over  5  mm.  The  man 
stated  he  had  his  hair  cut  about  once  in  four  months;  but  since  colored  persons  take  a  pride 
in  and  boast  of  rapidly  growing  hair,  it  is  probable  that  even  this  represents  a  minimum 
interval. 


40 


HEREDITY   OF    SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 


Table  32. — Hair  form  in  negro  X  white  crosses. — Continued. 
(B)  STRAIGHT  X  WAVY  (OR  NEARLY  STRAIGHT). 


Reference 
No. 

>> 
> 

3 
0 

3 
u 

Kinky. 
Semi- 

woolly. 
Woolly. 

&i 

strt. 
kinky 

si.  wavy 
wavy 
wavy 
strt. 
strt. 

nly. str. 
strt. 

nly.  str. 
wavy 
wavy 
wavy 
wavy 
strt. 
strt. 

1 

B.  8 

B.  13 

B.  21 

B.23 

B.  24 

B.  25 

B.  27 

J.  SI 

B.  28 

B.31 

J.  7 

J-43 

J.  45 

J.51 

Total .  . . 

I 
2 

4 

I 

I 

2 

I 

3 

I 
I 
8 

I 
2 
4 

4 

I 
I 
2 

I 
I 

I 
4 

2 

I 

OJ 

2 
2 

3 

2 



.    !    . . . 
.    1    •  •  • 

strt. 

strt. 

strt. 

wavy 

wavy 

strt. 

nly.  str. 

strt. 

strt. 

strt. 

strt. 

strt. 

wavy 

wavy 

strV. 

wavy  ' 
kinky 

25 

22      j    17           2 

. 









.... 

i    ••••    1 

(C)  STRAIGHT  X  CURLY. 

B.  10 

B.  11 

B.  13 

B.  14 

B.  21 

B.  21 

B.23 

B.23 

B.  26 

J.  4 

J-9 

J.  9 

J.  9 

J.  16 

J.  17 

J.  19 

J.  26 

J.  26 

J-  35 

J-  38 

J.  39 

J.  42 

J.  48 

J.  SI 

J.  40 

J.  SO 

J.61 

Total .  .  . 

I 
2 

I 
2 
2 

I 
I 

I 
.  .  . 
I 
I 
3 
2 

3 

2 
3 

2 

\ 
3 

2 

6 
3 
3 

I 

2 

I 

2 

3 

3 

4 
2 
2 

4 

2 

I 

2 

2 
3 
2 
2 

3 

... 

curly 

strt. 

strt. 

curly 

strt. 

strt. 

strt. 

curly 

cur.(?) 
strt. 
curly 
curly 
curly 
strt. 
curly 
strt. 
curly 
curly 

si.  cur. 
strt. 
strt. 
curly 
strt. 
strt. 
curly 
curly 

v.  cur. 

strt. 

curly 
strV. 

strt. 
curly 
curly 
strt. 
curly 
curly 
curly 
strt. 
strt. 

v.  cur. 
strt. 
strt. 
strt. 
curly 
strt. 
curly 
strt. 
strt. 
strt. 

V.  cur. 
curly 
strt. 
curly 
curly 
strt. 
strt. 
strt. 

wavy 

strt. 

strt. 

1 

1 

strt'. 
wavy  1 

StrV. 

1 

si.  wav. 

31 

24 

27 

10 

I 







(D)  STRAIGHT  X  KINKY. 

B.7 

B.  21 

J- 9 

J.  22 

J.  23 

J-48 

J.  SI 

tf.::::. 

Total .  .  . 

«I 

I 

I 

4 

I 
2 

2 

I 
I 

2 

3 

2 

4 
3 

I 

I 

I 
I 

X 

4 

I 

2 

i    •  •  • 

strt.C?) 

strt. 

strt. 
kinky  I* 

strt. 

strt. 
kinky/ 
kinky 

strt. 

wavy 
curly 

strt". 
strt. 

kinky 
kinky 
kinky 

strt. 
kinky' 
kinky 

strt. 

strt. 
kinky 

pure 

negro 
.... 

7 

7 

16 

8 

2 

1 







(E)  STRAIGHT  X  WOOLLY. 

L.4 

... 

... 

... 

... 

I 

1 

strt. 





woolly 



•■  Slightly. 
'■Illegitimate? 
•Three  months  old. 


^A  "sambo"  colored  man. 

•  Daughter  of  a  black  man  and  a  mulatto. 

i  Brown  father  and  a  very  dark  mother. 


INHERITANCE   OF   TRAITS    ASSOCIATED    WITH   SKIN   COLOR.    41 


Table  32. 


-Hair  form  in  negro  X  while  crosses. — Continued. 
(F)  WAVY  X  WAVY. 


♦> 

>.  1 

1 

Reference 

No. 

U 

>> 

> 

3 
0 

3 
u 

> 

B 

Semi- 
woo! 

Wooll 
P. 

2 

B.4 

I 

1 

V.  wavy 

I.  wav. 

1 

B.  21 

, . . 

I 

I 

2 

. 

wavy 

si.  wav. 

.... 

1      ,  ,  ,  , 

B.  24 

. . . 

.    .    . 

2 

.  .  . 

. 

.    1  wavy 

wavy 

B.    25.... 

I 

-7 

I 

.  .  . 

si.  wav. 

wavy 

B.  26.... 

3 

I 

.  .  . 

' 

wavy 

si.  wav. 

B.  29 

-,   2 

2 

I 

wavy 

wavy 

strt.       kinky  i 

J.41.... 

I 

.  .  . 

3 

.  .  . 

wavy 

wavy 

J.  47.... 

4 

4 

wavy 

wavy 

.... 

J. 30.... 

2 

4 

.  .  . 

.     V.  wavy 

wavy 

.... 

J.  52.... 
Total .  . 

.  . .. 

I 

... 

■  •_  J  ■ 

• 

.    1   wavy 

si.  wav. 



10 

16 

12 

3 

...      1     ... 

\    





(G)  WAVY  X  CURLY. 

1 

i 

B.  8 

1 

I 

I 

.     si.  wav. 

! 

V.  cur. 

....     i 

B.  13.... 

3 

2 

curly 

wavy 

wavy        .... 

...     1 

B.  19 

.  1  ... 

I 

.  .  . 

.     si.  wav. 

V.  cur 

... 

B.  19.... 

.  1    2 

2 

I 

curly 

wavy  ,     .... 

. . . 

B.  20 

.  .  . 

6 

V.  cur. 

wavy  ,     .... 

.  . . 

B.  21.... 

.,   3 

. . . 

I 

wavy 

curly 

B.  21.... 

V.  cur. 

wavy 

.  . . 

B.  27.... 

I 

si.  cur. 

wavy 

B.  29.... 

I 

I 

.    '    curlv 

strt. 

kinky 

wavy 

B.  29.... 

curly 

strt. 

kinky 

wavy 

B.  30.... 

. '   2 

I 

curly 

V.  wav. 

.  . . 

J. 3 

2 

2 

. 

curly 

wavy 

strt. 

J.  9 

I 

4 

2 

curlv 

wavy 

J.  31.... 

.     V.  wav. 

curly 

J. 38.... 

I 

curly 

.... 

wavy 

J.53.... 

I 

I 

• 

V.  wav. 

strt. 

V.  cur. 

strt. 

J.  56.  .  . . 

I 

2 

.  . 

wavy 

. 

v.  cur. 

.    .   . 

J. 57.... 
Total.  . 

.   ... 

4 

3 

■ 

.  .     wav.(?) 

V.  cur. 

.]  II 

19 

27 

i    ^3 

7 







.... 

— 

(H)  WAVY  X  KIXKY. 

B.  3 

3 

kinky 

wavy 

B.  25.... 

I 

2 

.  .  . 

kinky 

St 

rt. 

V.  wav. 

.    .  . 

B.  29.... 

2 

I 

2 

I 

wavy 

kinky 

.   .  . 

J.  33 

I 

.  .  . 

3 

2 

kmkv 

wavy 

.    .   . 

J.  S3--.. 

I 

4 

.  .  . 

.  .  . 

kinky 

strt. 

wavy 

J.  55.... 

3 

2 

.  .  . 

kinky 

wavy 

si. 

wav. 

J.  62.... 

I 

5 

2 

kinky 

wavy 

L.  2 

Total.  . 

... 

... 

2 

kinky 

.... 

wavy 

2 

12 

IS 

6 

I 

2 





— 

(1)  CURLY  X  CURLY. 

B.  14 

1 

I 

curly 

curly        .... 

B.  29 

.1   I 

2 

I 

curly 

curly   j     

.... 

B.  33-.  •• 

2 

2 

2 

curly 

cur.(?)«| 

-   ■    >   > 

>  •  ■  • 

J.  1 

2 

curly 

curly    ' 

>  .  .  • 

J.  2 

>     •     > 

curly 

curly 

.... 

.  •  •  . 

J- 4 

2 

curly 

curly 

.... 

.... 

J.  5 

•    •    • 

.     cur.  (?) 

v.  cur 

J.  18.... 

s 

curlv 

V.  cur.  •     .... 

curly 

J.  20 

I 

I 

.     cur.(?) 

curlv        .... 

J.  24.... 

3 

curly 

curly        .... 

.... 

J.  27.... 

3 

2 

curly 

curlv 

.... 

J.  29.... 

3 

curlv 

curly 

.... 

J.  29. . . . 

3 

X 

.      si.  cur. 

si.  cur. 

.... 

J.  44.... 

I 

curly 

curly 

.... 

J.  SI.... 

t 

V.  cur. 

curly 

.... 

J.  53 

2 

I 

.    ,  V.  cur. 

strt. 

curly   I 

.... 

J.  55-... 
Total .  . 

2 

2 

3 

... 

. 

.      si.  cur. 

wavy 

curly    i 

kinky 

strt. 

9 

II 

28 

6 

I 

I 





-■-•     i 





•  Almost  white  father  and  dark  mother. 


42        HEREDITY    OF    SKIN    COLOR    IN    NEGRO-WHITE    CROSSES. 


Table  32. — Hair  form  in  negro  X  white  crosses. — Continued. 
(K)   CURLY  X  KINKY. 


Reference 

No. 

'3 

CO 

>. 

s 
^ 

0 

3 
u 

>■ 

Semi- 
woolly. 

0 

(xi 

f^ 

b 

:s 

fe 
S 

S 

S 

L.    I 

6 

1 

.  i ... 

kinky 

.... 

curly 

.... 



1 

(L)  CURLY  X  CRIMPY. 

J.S6 

I 

I 

... 

V.  cur. 

crimpy     strt. 

wavy 

The  observations  made  on  form  of  hair  were  incidental,  merely, 
to  those  on  skin  color.  They  have,  however,  some  interest  as  throwing 
light  on  the  question  of  the  condition  in  the  offspring  of  two  parents 
who  belong  to  different  types;  also  upon  the  question  of  segregation 
of  the  types.  This  is  a  matter  which  was  considered  on  a  smaller 
amount  of  data  some  years  ago  (G.  C.  and  C.  B.  Davenport,  1908). 
We  reached  the  conclusion  that  hair  form  is  inherited  in  typical  fash- 
ion; that  two  straight-haired  parents  have  only  straight-haired  off- 
spring; that  two  curly -haired  parents  will  frequently  have  straight- 
haired  offspring;  that  waviness  is  a  heterozygous  condition,  so  that 
two  wavy-haired  parents  will  have  both  straight-haired  and  curly- 
haired  offspring. 

The  assertion  has  been  made  that  a  mixture  of  forms  is  found  on 
the  heads  of  half-breeds,  and  Bond  (19 12)  has  described  two  such  cases. 
But  Bond  makes  it  clear  that  such  mixture  of  hair  forms  is  an  excep- 
tional phenomenon,  as  exceptional  as  spotted  head-hair  color  in  men. 
Such  a  mixture  of  forms  of  hair  was  not  found  in  our  families,  though 
not  particularly  looked  for  except  in  about  ten  children. 

Fischer  (1909,  p.  1050)  states  that  in  the  bastards  of  Rehoboth 
the  hair  appears  as  a  compromise  between  the  Dutch  and  negro.  It 
is  almost  never  entirely  smooth,  but  almost  never  a  close  spiral,  "pepper 
com,"  hair  like  the  Hottentots.  It  is  of  intermediate  length,  usually 
has  an  open  curl,  or  shows  a  narrow  wave. 

Table  32  gives  the  results  of  all  matings.  Section  A  gives  the 
only  cases  where  matings  of  two  strictly  straight-haired  persons  oc- 
curred. The  7  progeny  had  straight  hair.  This  accords  with  studies 
made  on  whites.  Straight  is  the  recessive  condition  that  does  not 
carry  curvature. 

Section  B  includes  straight  by  wavy,  including  some  "slightly 
wavy"  and  "nearly  straight"  or  "practically  straight."  Here  there 
are  three  prevailing  forms,  straight,  wavy,  and  curly,  occurring  in  the 
proportions  of  25,  22,  and  19.  On  the  hypothesis,  supported  by  the 
data  of  my  earlier  paper  (1908,  p.  344),  that  wavy  is  the  heterozygous 
or  simplex  form  of  curly,  we  might  expect  an  equality  of  straight  and 
wavy  in  the  offspring;  but,  as  in  the  Caucasian  material,  curly  does 


INHERITANCE   OF   TRAITS   ASSOCIATED   WITH    SKIN   COLOR.    43 

not  alwa3's  fail  to  dominate,  but,  on  the  contrary,  the  simplex  curl- 
determiner  may  yield  a  curly  condition  of  the  hair.  Theoretically,  an 
equality  of  straight  and  curved  is  to  be  expected,  instead  of  which  25:38 
is  found.  This  is  in  part  due  to  a  failure  to  report  the  hair  in  describing 
a  child  where  it  is  straight  (there  are  apparently  several  omissions  of 
this  sort)  and  partly  to  classifying  as  straight-haired  some  persons 
whose  hair  is  really  wavy  or  curly  at  the  ends  but  is  cropped  short  in 
order  to  conceal  the  fact — for  the  near-white  hides  the  cur\'e  in  his 
hair  if  he  can. 

(C)  The  mating  straight  X  curly  yields  only  straight,  wa\^%  and 
curly  (in  all  degrees).  In  a  few  cases  (J. 4,  J.  38),  including  all  where  the 
hair  of  the  one  parent  is  "very  curly,"  the  progeny  have  all  curly  hair. 
Otherwise  the  hair  of  the  progeny  is  straight,  wavy,  or  curly.  Assuming 
that  there  would  be  straight-haired  offspring  in  cases  only  where  the 
curly  parent  carries  straightness,  we  expect  50  per  cent  of  the  offspring 
to  have  straight  hair.  Counting  only  fraternities  that  include  both 
straight-  and  curved-haired  offspring,  we  find  35  straight  to  50  cur\'ed 
of  all  grades.  Here,  again,  the  deficiency  of  "straight"  offspring  is 
probably  due  to  a  failure  to  report  a  few  straight-haired  children.  The 
result  is  of  the  order  of  expectation. 

(D)  The  mating  straight  X  kinky  gives  rise,  prevailingly,  to  curly- 
haired  offspring.  However,  there  is  one  case  of  a  pure-bred,  kinky- 
haired  negro  who  had  a  3 -months-old  child  whose  hair  is  straight  (but 
such  children  usually  develop  curly  hair  subsequently) .  In  all  the  other 
cases  where  there  are  ' '  straight ' '  children  the  kinky-haired  parent  has 
about  three-fourths  negro  blood.  The  case  of  J.  51  is  remarkable.  In 
general,  kinky  does  not  carry  straightness,  but  apparently  may  do  so 
(J.  51).     The  heterozygous  condition  is  evidently  wavy  or  curly. 

(E)  The  mating  straight  X  woolly  occurred  once  and  there  was 
only  one  child,  and  it  had  kinky  hair. 

(F)  The  product  of  two  wavy-haired  parents  is  straight,  wavy,  and 
curly-haired  offspring  in  roughly  1:2:1  proportions — again  evidence 
of  the  heteroz3^gous  nature  of  waviness. 

(G)  Wavy  X  curly  gives  mostly  wavy  and  curly  offspring,  again 
the  product  of  c-f  C  and  C-f  C  determiners  respectively.  But  there 
are  some  straights,  indicating  that  some  curly-haired  parents  have 
"straight"  germ-cells,  as  we  saw  under  (C). 

(H)  Wavy  X  kinky  crosses  yield  a  very  few  straights  and  2  woolly ; 
but  most  of  the  children  have  wavy  or  curly  (heterozygous  forms  of 
kinky) . 

(I)  Curly  X  curly  yields  mostly  curly;  yet  some  curly  parents 
apparently  carry  "straight"  as  a  recessive  character,  so  that  14  per 
cent  of  all  offspring  belong  to  that  category. 

(K)  Curly  X  kinky. — In  this,  our  extreme  union  of  curly  types, 
only  curly  and  kinky  occur  in  the  children  (i  fraternity). 


44       HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 


G.  CORRELATION  OF  CHARACTERISTICS  IN  HYBRIDS. 

We  have  seen  that  from  two  mulatto  parents  there  may  arise  a 
child  with  a  white  skin  or  a  child  with  a  full  black  skin,  as  well  as  chil- 
dren with  an  intermediate  skin  color.  We  have  now  to  consider  the 
question :  In  how  far  is  the  absence  or  presence  of  negro  skin  pigment 
associated  with  the  absence  or  presence  of  other  negro  characteristics? 
Unfortunately,  we  have  not  data  for  answering  this  question  fully. 
But  there  are  two  traits  that  are  associated  with  dark  pigmentation 
of  the  skin  in  the  negro  of  which  we  can  trace  the  association  in  the 
offspring  of  hybrids,  namely,  color  of  the  hair  and  form  of  the  hair 
(degree  of  curving). 

For  this  study  the  fraternities  listed  in  table  19  only  were  used. 
This  table  gives  the  fraternities  derived  from  two  Fi  mulattoes  (or  else 
two  medium-colored  persons  who  probably  transmit  as  Fi  mulattoes 
do).  The  reason  for  selecting  the  fraternities  listed  in  this  table  is  to 
insure  that  both  parents  are  trul}'  of  hybrid  origin,  and,  consequently, 
form  germ-cells  with  determiners  for  both  Caucasian  and  negro  charac- 
teristics, and  hence  may  have  children  with  any  desired  combination  of 
these  characters,  in  so  far  as  the  characters  are  dissociable. 


I.     Correlation  Between  the  Color  of  the  Skin  and  of  the  Hair  in 

THE  Fa  Generation. 

Correlation  can  be  quantitatively  expressed  when  both  characters 
considered  have  been  measured.  Skin  color  has  been  measured  in  our 
study,  but  hair  color  has  not  been.  However,  we  may  get  closely  to 
the  desired  result  by  forming  the  series:  flaxen,  light  brown,  medium 
brown,  dark  brown,  and  black,  and  assigning  to  these  the  values  1,2, 
3,  4,  5,  respectively.  Then  our  correlation  surface  is  formed  as  in 
table  33. 

Table  33. — Correlation  between  color  of  the  skin  and  of  the  hair. 


Medium  class  values .          6 
Skin  color  N  p.  ct ....  1       o-ii 

i8 

12-25 

33 
26-40 

48 
41-55 

63        ! 

1     Total 
56-70 

Hair  color: 

1  (flaxen) 

2  (light  brown) .  . 

3  (brown) 

4  (dark  brown) .  . 

5  (black) 

/Total 

I 

2 

V           's 

2                           4 

5          '        15 

I                         12 

I 
2 
6 

2 

I 
6 
9 

22 
21 

3 

1 

9                 ■?6        1         o         1         2 

59 

N.  B. — Jhe  tabular  entries  indicate  the  frequency  with  which  the  given  correlation  occurs. 

The  correlation  calculated  from  this  table  is  -f  0.44  =±=0.07.  This 
indicates  that,  as  the  skin  color  of  the  children  is  light  or  dark,  the 
hair  color  is  light  or  dark  respectively,  with  a  degree  of  correlation 


CORRELATION   OF   CHARACTERISTICS    IN    HYBRIDS. 


45 


which  is  slightly  less  than  half  of  a  perfect  correlation  (i).  This  result 
indicates  that  there  is  a  general  tendency  to  pigmentation  in  the  body ; 
that  this  affects  both  skin  and  hair,  but  for  some  reason  a  black  hair 
color  tnay  be  associated  with  a  light-colored  skin.  Just  why  this  is 
can  not  at  present  be  answered.  Ev^idently  hair  color  depends  upon 
additional  factors  to  those  merely  which  determine  skin  pigmentation. 

II.  Correlation  Between  Color  of  the  Skin  and  Form  of  the  Hair 

IN  the  Fo  Generation. 

The  correlation  surface  is  given  in  table  34. 

Table  34. — Correlation  between  color  of  the  skin  and  form  of  the  hair. 


Medium  class  value.          6                 i8 
Skin  color o-ii      i     12-25 

33 
26-40 

48 
41-SS 

63 

56-70 

] 

Total. 

1 

Form  of  hair: 

1  (str.iight) 

2  (wavy) 

3  (curly) 

4  (very  curly).. .  . 

5  (woolly) 

Total 

2 
I 

4 

"s 

5 

10 

IS 

9 

3 

2 
2 
I 
3 
4 

I 
I 

1 

12 
12 
27 

12 
8 

3 

12 

42 

12 

2 

71 

1 

N.  B. — The  tabular  entries  indicate  the  frequency  with  which  the  given  correlation  occurs. 

The  correlation  calculated  from  table  34  is  +  0.043  =^  o.oSo. 
Expressed  in  English  this  means  that  there  is  no  evidence  of  any  corre- 
lation at  all.  An  inspection  of  table  34  shows  that  one  of  the  two  ex- 
tracted full  black-skinned  individuals  had  straight  hair,  and  that  one 
of  the  extracted  white-skinned  individuals  had  woolly  hair.  Black  skin 
color  and  woolly  hair  are  closely  associated  in  the  pure-bred  negro,  but 
the  association  is,  so  to  say,  accidental.  The  determiners  for  the  two 
traits  dissociate  in  the  germ-cells  of  the  h^-brids  and  reappear  in  the 
next  generation  in  all  possible  combinations. 

The  lack  of  correlation  between  two,  at  least,  of  the  negro's  char- 
acteristics affords  additional  proof  of  our  conclusion  that  skin  color  does 
not  blend,  but  segregates.  In  what  other  mechanism  than  that  afforded 
by  segregation  in  the  germ-cells  have  we  an  explanation  of  the  result  ? 

The  fact  that  two,  at  least,  of  the  negro's  traits  are  inherited 
wholly  independently  opens  the  way  for  some  interesting  considerations 
of  a  social  nature.  As  is  often  the  case,  we  have  let  one  character — 
skin  color — epitomize  the  totality  of  the  racial  characters  of  the  negro. 
Recognizing  the  inadequacy  of  the  average  black  African  negro  to  play 
a  part  in  our  highly  developed  society  a  natural  stigma  has  become 
attached  to  black  skin  color.  Our  social  distinctions  are  based  on  that 
skin  color;  we  have  separate  railway  cars  and  schools  for  "blacks" 
and  "whites."  Meanwhile,  in  consequence  of  hybridization  and  segre- 
gation of  characters,  we  have  black-skinned  persons  with  straight  hair, 
4 


46       HEREDITY    OF    SKIN    COLOR   IN    NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

narrow  noses,  and,  as  is  well  known,  with  many  or  all  the  inhibitions 
and  educability  of  the  Caucasians.  And,  also  (and  this  is  of  great  and 
increasing  moment),  we  have  white-skinned  persons  not  only  with 
negroid  features  but  with  that  lack  of  inhibitors,  that  absence  of 
educability,  that  characterizes  the  typical  west  coast  African.  From 
a  social  point  of  view  one  may  suggest  that  it  had  been  better  for 
society  had  it  been  possible  to  find  some  simple  criterion  of  mental 
inferiority  that  is  as  conspicuous  as  skin  color.  Then  we  could  have 
separate  cars  and  schools  for  the  feeble-minded  without  regard  to 
skin  color,  as  we  now  have,  on  railroad  lines  that  run  from  a  great  city 
to  suburban  state  hospitals,  special  cars  for  the  insane,  and,  in  most 
large  northern  cities,  special  schools  for  the  mentally  retarded. 

H.  FECUNDITY  OF  HYBRIDS. 

There  is  an  ancient  tradition  that  mulattoes  are  unprolific.  This 
was  affirmed  by  Long  (1774),  who  stated  that  he  had  never  heard  of 
a  union  of  two  mulattoes  in  Jamaica  that  was  prolific;  and  Nott  de- 
clared that  mulattoes,  at  least  of  South  Carolina,  were  unprolific. 
Broca's  (1864)  great  argument  against  the  unity  of  the  human  species 
was  based  on  the  assertion  that  human  "hybrids"  were  sterile.  This 
matter  has  been  considered  recently  by  Fischer  (1911,  1912),  who 
finds  that  the  number  and  vigor  of  the  hybrids  of  the  Boers  and  Hot- 
tentots has  not  suffered  any  decline.  In  such  hybrids  "die  durch- 
schnittliche  Zahl  pro  Ehe  ist  7.7;  die  Sterblichkeit  ist  nichts  grosser 
in  Verwandten-  und  Insuchtsehen,  der  Gesundheitszustand  um  nichts 
schlechter." 

Our  own  records  afford  no  support  to  the  view  of  the  inferior 
fecundity  of  the  black  X  white  crosses.  Even  Fi  crosses  are  fully 
fecund.  Referring  to  table  19  we  find  four  certain  fraternities  of  Fi 
hybrids.  They  have  respectively  12,1,  and  9  children.  Case  B  XXI 
is  particularly  instructive.  The  mother  had  1 1  children  at  an  average 
interval  of  less  than  two  years.  Nine  of  these  were  seen  by  the  field 
worker;  none  had  died!  Taking  table  19  as  a  whole,  there  are  88  chil- 
dren to  21  matings  or  an  average  of  4.4  children  to  a  fraternity;  which 
is  equal  to  the  average  fecundity  of  all  the  matings.  There  is  no  sup- 
port in  our  data  for  the  notion  of  lack  of  fecundity  of  negro  X  white 
crosses,  nor  of  their  deficient  viability. 

I.  SUMMARY  OF  CONCLUSIONS. 

By  the  use  of  quantitative  methods  of  expressing  skin  color  and 
by  means  of  the  study  of  complete  families,  it  is  possible  to  get  at  the 
law  of  inheritance  of  skin  color  in  negro  X  white  crosses. 

Skin  pigmentation  develops  chiefl}^  after  birth  (i.e.,  from  the  begin- 
ning of  exposure  of  the  skin  to  daylight),  attaining  its  maximum  at 
about  the  age  of  puberty,  and  then  diminishing  in  intensity. 


LITERATURE   CITED.  47 

The  following  hypothesis  is  supported  by  the  facts:  That  there 
are  two  (double)  factors  {A  and  B)  for  black  pigmentation  in  the  full- 
blooded  negro  of  the  west  coast  of  Africa. 

There  is  no  sex-linkage  in  skin  pigmentation  of  man. 

Colored  persons  tend  to  select  as  consorts  persons  of  about  their 
own  grade  of  skin  color. 

The  yellow  element  in  the  skin  color  of  light-colored  persons  and 
those  with  Chinese  blood  is  frequently  high  (about  25  per  cent).  This 
excessive  yellow  element,  obscured  in  full  blacks,  is  revealed  in  diluted 
black. 

The  tradition  that  a  person  with  negro  blood  who  passes  for  white 
may  have,  by  a  white  consort,  a  child  with  a  black  skin  color  probably 
depends  on  the  observation  that  two  "Hght-colored  persons"  may  have 
a  medium-colored  child. 

The  darkest  grades  of  eye  color  are  rarely  simplex  or  heterozygous ; 
the  simplex  forms  are  chiefly  hazel  and  light  brown. 

The  darkest  grades  of  hair  color  are  chiefly  or  exclusively  duplex 
in  respect  to  dark  pigmentation. 

Curliness  of  hair  in  the  positive  condition;  when  lacking  in  both 
parents  it  is  lacking  in  their  children.  Woolly  hair  is  the  duplex  con- 
dition. Wavy -haired  persons  always,  and  curly-haired  persons  some- 
times, may  carry  "absence  of  curliness"  in  the  germ-cells. 

It  is  not  generally  true  that  hybrids  between  whites  and  blacks 
are  relatively  infertile;  some  such  hybrids  show  an  exceptionally  high 
fecundity. 

There  is  a  strong  correlation  between  skin  and  hair  color,  about 
0.44  (where  the  greatest  possible  correlation  is  i.oo). 

There  is  no  correlation  between  skin  color  and  the  curliness  of 
the  hair.  The  determiners  of  both  traits  segregate  in  the  germ-cells 
of  the  hybrids  and  make  unions  at  haphazard  in  the  next  generation. 

K.— LITERATURE  CITED. 

Adachi,  B. 

1903.  Hautpigment  beim  Menschen  und  bei  den  Affen.     Zeitschr.  f.  Alorphol.  u. 

Anthrop.,  vi,  1-131.    Taf.  i-iii. 
Bateson,  W.,  and  R.  C.  Punnett. 

191 1.  The  Inheritance  of  the  Peculiar  Pigmentation  of  the  Silky  Fowl.     Jour,  of 

Genetics,  i,  pp.  185-204.    August. 

BlOCH,  a.,  et  P.  ViGIER. 

1904.  Recherches  histologique  sur  le  follicule  pileux  et  le  cheveu  de  deux  n^gres 

decedcs  a  Paris.    Bull,  et  Mdm.  de  la  Soc.  d'Anthropol.  de  Paris  (5),  v,  pp. 
124-132. 
Bond,  C.  J. 

19 12.  On  Heterochromia  Iridis  in  Man  and  Animals  from  the  Genetic  Point  of  View. 

Jour,  of  Genetics,  11,  pp.  99-129,  plates  vi,  viii. 
Brodnax,  B.  H. 

1903.    Color  of  infant  negroes.    Mississippi  Med.  Record,  vii,  p.  174. 
Broca,  P. 

1863.  Coleur  de  la  pcau  du  N^gre  k  la  naissance.    Bull.  Soc.  d'anthrop,  Paris,  iv, 

pp.  612,  613. 

1864.  The  Phenomena  of  Human  Hybridity.    Trans,  by  C.  C.  Blake.    London,  76  pp. 


48        HEREDITY   OF    SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

Davenport,  G.  C.,  and  C.  B. 

1907.    Heredity  of  Eye  Color  in  Man.    Science,  xxvr,  pp.  589-592. 

1909.  Heredity  of  Hair  Color  in  Man.     Amer.  Nat.,  xliii,  pp.  193-21 1. 

19 10.  Heredity  of  Skin  Pigment  in  Man.    Amer.  Nat.,  XLiv,  pp.  642-672,  705-731. 
Deniker,  J. 

1906.  The  Races  of  Man.    New  York,  611  pp. 

DOWD,  J. 

1907.  The  Negro  Races.     Vol.  i.    New  York,  491  pp. 
Fischer,  E. 

1909.    Das   Rehobother  Bastardvolk  in   Deutsch-Siidwest-Afrika.     Die   Umschau, 
XIII,  pp.  1047-1051. 

1911.  Zum  Inzuchts-  und  Bastardierungsproblem  beim  Menschen.     Korrespondenz 

Blatt.  Deutsch.  Ges.  f.  Anthrop.  Ethnol.  u.  Urgeschichte,  XLii,  No.  8/12. 
Aug./  Dez. 
1913.    Die  Rehobother  Bastards  und  das  Bastardierungs   problem  beim  Menschen. 
Jena:  327  pp.,  19  pis. 
Herrman,  C. 

1907.     Pigmented  spots  in  the  sacral  region  of  white  and  negro   infants.     Jour,  of 
Cutaneous  Diseases,  xxv,  pp.  201-205. 
Holmes,  S.  J.,  and  H.  M.  Lewis, 

1909.  Heredity  of  Eye  Color  and  Hair  Color  in  Man.    Biol.  Bull.,  xviil,  pp.  50-65. 

December. 
Johnston,  H.  H. 

19 10.  The  Negro  in  the  New  World.    New  York,  499  pp. 
L.\NG,  A. 

191 1.  Fortgesetzte  Vererbungsstudien.     Zeitschrift  fur  induk.  Abstam.   u.    Verer- 

bungslehre.  v,  pp.  97-136. 
Livingstone,  W.  P. 

1900.  Black  Jamaica:  A  Study  in  Evolution.    London,  298  pp. 
Lehmann-Nitsche,  R. 

1904.     Die  dunklen  Hautflecke  der  Neugeborenen  bei  Indianern  und  Mulatten.  Globus, 
Lxxxv,  pp.  297-301. 
Pruner-Bey,  F. 

1 86 1.  Memories  sur  les  negres.    Mem  de  la  Soc.  d'anthrop.  de  Paris,  i,  pp.  293-336. 
1864.     Questions  relatives  a  I'anthropologie  g^n^rale.     Bull.   Soc.  d'anthropoL,  v, 

pp.  64-135. 
1864.     Coiileur  des  petits  mulatres  a  la  naissance.     Bull.  Soc.  d'anthrop.  de  Paris, 
V,  pp.  360-1. 
Schiller-Tietz. 

1901.  Die  Hautfarbe  der  neugeborenen  Negerkinder.    Deutsch.  Med.  Wochenschrift. 

xxvii,  pp.  615-616. 

1902.  Die    Hautfarbe   der   neugeborenen  Negerkinder.     Deutsche   Rundschau   fur 

Geogr.  u.  Statistik,  Bd.  24,  pp.  55-62. 
SiMONOT,  P.  F. 

1862.  Sur  la  coloration  de  la  peau  du  negre.    Bull,  de  la  Soc.  d 'Anthropologic,  iii, 

pp.  140-152. 
Thomson,  A. 

1891.     Note  on  the  Skin  and  Scalp  of  the  Negro  Fcetus.    J.  Anat.  u.  Physiol.,  xxv, 
pp.  282-285. 
Topinard,  p. 

1894.    Anthropology.    London,  548  pp. 
Waldeyer  W. 

1884.     Atlas  der  menschlichen  und  tierischen  Haare.     Lahr;  Schauenburg,  195  pp., 
12  Taf. 


APPENDIX  A. 

ABBREVIATIONS. 

Gen.  generation,  d"  male,  9  female,  t  died. 
Initials  of  husband's  name  are  bracketed. 

After  the  word  "  skin  "  is  given  the  percentage  of  black,  red,  yellow,  and  white  in  the 
skin  color,  in  that  order. 

Roman  numerals  refer  to  generations;  Arabic  to  individuals. 

I.  BERMUDIAN  FAMILIES. 

(Abridged  field  notes  of  Florence  H.  Danielson,  Field  Worker,  Eugenics  Record  OfiBce.) 

Pedigree  i.     Q.  Family. 

I  Gen. — Captain  W.,  Englishman,  had  by  a  mulatto  slave 
II  Gett. — A  son,  lighter  than  IV  i.    He  married  a  black  woman. 

III  Gen. — Their  son  was  of  a  "beautiful  gingerbread-brown"  color.    He  mar- 

ried twice;  first,  a  mulatto,  the  daughter  of  a  white  man  and 
a  "dark"  woman;  and  second,  a  white  Bermudian. 

IV  Gen. — I,   9  .  The  only  living  child  of  the  first  wiie;  skin  40,  19,  13,  28. 

Her  hair  is  slightly  wavy,  her  eyes  brown.  She  married  a 
black  man,  and  of  their  eight  children,  all  of  whom  are  dead, 
none  was  darker  than  the  father. 
2-7.  Of  the  six  children  from  the  second  wife  none  was  darker  than 
the  father,  though  the  youngest  was  distinctly  darker  than 
the  only  living  child,  whose  skin  is  34,  27,  14,  25.  Her  hair 
is  more  wavy  than  that  of  her  half-sister.  She  married  a 
white  man,  but  has  no  children. 

Pedigree  2. 
A  fragment,  omitted. 

Pedigree  3,     B.  Family. 

A  Good  Case  of  Black  X  White  Mating. 

I  Gen. — Mr.  B.,  bom  in  Sweden  (eyes  blue,  hair  sandy,  skin  5,  25,  20,  50), 
living  in  Warwick,  married  a  very  dark  woman  (skin  71,  18, 
2,  19),  who  is  stated  to  have  had  a  "very  light"  illegitimate 
son  by  a  white  man  before  her  marriage.  She  has  had  seven 
children  by  Mr.  B.  (II  1-7). 
II  Gen. — I,  c^.  C.  B.,  absent,  same  color  as  II  6  (say  N  37). 

2,  cf .  A.  E.  B.,  31  years  old;  like  II  3  (say  N  35). 

3,  9  .  B.  B.  [A.],  30  years;  skin  35,  32,  19,  14;  hair  black  and  very 

curly.    She  married  a  black  man  (say,  N  4o=«=,W  10 ±)  and 
had  three  children  (III  i,  2,  3). 

4,  9 .  G.  B.,  25  years.     Hair  wavy;  skin  35,  37,  12,  16.     Married 

an  Italian,  but  has  no  children. 

5,  9.  E.  B.  [W.],  22  years.  Hair  black  and  wavy;  skin  43,  27,  12,  18. 

Married  a  West  Indian  negro,  color  of  III  4  or  darker,  and 
has  three  children  (III  4,  5,  6). 

6,  9.  M.  B.  [S.],  21  years.     Skin  37,  32,  11,  20.     Married  a  man 

lighter  than  herself,  both  of  whose  grandfathers  were  prob- 
ably wliite,  and  has  a  child  (III  7). 

7,  9  .  E.  B.,  17  years.    Hair  black  and  wavy;  skin  35,  25,  16,  24. 
Ill  Gen. — I,  o".  P.A.,Syears.    Hairdarkbrown,fairlycurly; skin 46,  29,13,12. 

49 


50       HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

2,   9  .  L.  A.,   6  years.     Hair  now  medium  brown,  formerly  very 
light,  curly;  skin  35,  34,  15,  16. 
i  3,  cf.  E.  A.,  4  months.    Hair  black  and  wavy;  skin  35,  30,  13,  22. 

I  4,  cf .  W.  W.,  4  years.     Hair  black,  with  typical  negro  curl;  skin 

)'  50.  25,  10,  15. 

<  5,  9  .  O.  W.,  3  years.    Hair  dark  brown,  curly;  skin  41,  25,  10,  24. 

6,  9  .  M.  W.,  I  year.    Hair  black,  not  very  curly;  skin  46, 34, 10,  10. 


7,  9  .  K.  S.,  14  months.    Skin  25,  20,  19,  36. 

Pedigree  4.     T.  Family. 

I  Gen. — I.  —  G.  A  black  man  (judging  from  an  old  daguerreotype  he  must 

have  been  very  dark)  whose  father's  father  was  a  Spaniard. 
Married  a  woman  who  is  now  84  years  old,  has  been  an  in- 
valid for  40  years,  and  is  "yellowed"  and  tanned;  her  eyes 
are  dark  brown  and  of  negroid  appearance;  her  hair  was 
black  and  has  only  a  slight  wave.  Skin  23,  25,  10,  42.  She 
\  maintains  that  her  parents  were  white  Bermudians.    This 

pair  has  had  eight  daughters,  all  but  one  of  whom  are  dead. 
They  were  all  mulattoes,  like  II  i  in  color. 

II  Gen. — I,  9. —  G  [T.].  Featuresgood;hairblackandslightly  wavy;  skin35, 

30,  10,  25.  Married  J.  T.,  who  has  a  broad  nose,  hair  black 
and  very  wavy;  skin  17,  33,  10,  40  (taken  in  the  evening). 
His  mother  was  dark-skinned  and  his  father  probably  white, 
but  possibly  mulatto.  They  had  two  children,  of  whom  one 
is  dead  (III  i,  2). 
Ill  Gen. — I.  —  T.,  f  6  months.    Very  light  mulatto. 

2,  9  .  E.  T.,  10  3^ears.    Hair  black,  curly,  not  woolly.    Was  darker 
"when  born"  than  she  is  at  present;  skin  61,  23,  7,  9. 

Pedigree  6.     W.  Family. 

I  Gen. — S.,  a  blue-eyed,  very  Hght  Fi  mulatto  man,  whose  father  was  a  blue- 
eyed  English  slave-owner  and  whose  mother  a  light  mulatto, 
married  an  Fi  mulatto  woman  whose  father  was  an  English- 
man and  mother  black  and  probably  a  slave.  They  had  four 
children  (II  i,  2,  3,  4). 

II  Gen. — I,  9  .  M.  S.  [W.].    Ej^es  deep  blue;  hair  black  and  kinky,  but,  when 

a  child,  of  tow  color;  skin  50,  13,  14,  23.  Married  a  man, 
now  deceased,  whose  skin  was  approximately  78,  8,  5,  9,  and 
had  a  daughter  (III  i).     (See  fig.  i.) 

2,  9  .  S.  S.  [B.].    Eyes  light  brown;  skin  55,  8,  15,22;  children  dead 

or  scattered. 

3,  cf.  —  S.    A  mulatto  whose  wife  is  dead,  and  child  is  III  2. 

4,  cf.  D.  S.    Eyes  blue;  hair  straight ;  skin  30,  35,  18,  17.    Married 

a  "black"  woman  and  had  one  child  (III  3). 

III  Gen. — I,  9.  M.  W.  [M.].    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  typically  negroid;*  skin 

60,  15,  9,  16.  By  a  man  of  about  her  own  color  she  had  an 
illegitimate  daughter  who  at  16  years  has  dark  brown  eyes, 

*The  term  "  typical  hair  "  is  used  in  a  technical  sense  for  the  curly  hair  of  the  "  brown- 
skinned  "  negroes  of  the  Bermudas.  The  texture  is  coarse  and  it  is  very  curly,  but  can 
usually  be  combed  and  pulled  out  straight  enough  to  braid  in  one  or  two  "  pigtails  "  behind, 
or  if  it  is  done  up  on  top  of  the  head  it  makes  a  fairly  respectable  "  bob."  It  seems  to  grow 
longer  than  the  black  natives'  hair  and  has  a  less  obstinate  wiry  curl  in  it. — F.  H.  D. 


BERMUDIAN    FAMILIES.  51 

typical  hair,  and  skin  68,  13,  5,  14.  By  a  man  darker  than 
herself  (about  N  78)  she  had  a  daughter,  13  years  old,  skin 
58,  30,  6,  6;  and  a  son,  12  years  old,  skin  52,  30,  9,  9.  Then 
she  married  a  dark-eyed  Englishman,  who.  however,  has  a 
brother  with  blue  eyes,  and  they  had  two  children  (IV  1,2). 
(See  fig.  I.) 

2,  9  .  M.  S.,  II  years.    Skin  54,  35,  6,  5. 

3,  cT.  J.  S.    Skin  19,  34,  20,  27.    Married  a  woman  whose  father 

was  English  and  whose  mother  was  Portuguese,  both  from 
Antigua.  Her  hair  is  black,  nearly  straight,  and  the  complex- 
ion olive,  5,  31,  22,39.  They  had  four  children  (IV  3,  4,  5,  6). 
IV  Gen. — I,  cf .  L.  A.  M.,  10  years.  Skin  55,  28,  7,  10.  Paternity  doubtful. 
2,  d^.  E.  M.,  4  years.  Eyes  blue;  hair  flaxen  and  straight;  skin  ^2. 
12,  18,  38  (fig.  i). 


3,  9  .  G.  S.,  7  years.  Eyes  dark;  hair  black  and  straight;  skin  15, 

20,  15,  50. 

4,  d^.  L.  S.,  5  years.  Eyes  dark;  hair  black  and  straight;  skin  25, 

25.  14,  36. 

5,  9  .  K.  S.,  4  years.  Eyes  dark;  hair  light  brown  and  very  curly; 

skin  14,  27,  12,  47. 

6,  9  .  \V.  S.,  2  years.  Hair  brown  and  curly;  skin  5,  40,  16,  39. 

Pedigree  7.     F.  Family. 

Black  X  White  Mating. 

I  Gen. — T.  F.,  son  of  an  Englishman  and  a  white  Bermudian;  blue  eyes; 
brunet;  married  a  very  black  woman,  who  knows  of  no  white 
blood  in  her  ancestry;  typical  kinky  hair;  skin  77,  15,  3,  5. 
They  have  had  six  children,  of  whom  five  are  Hving  (II  1-6). 
II  Gen. — I,  gT".  C.  F.,  9  years.  Hair  very  dark,  coarse,  curly  but  not  woolly ; 
skin  43,  35,  7,  15. 

2,  cf .  E.  F.,  7  years.    Hair  dark  brown,  very  curly,  almost  woolly; 

skin  39,  35,  10,  16. 

3,  9  .  — ,  t  3  months.    Skin  was  like  the  baby's,  No.  6. 

4,  d^.  J.  F.,  4  years.    Hair  dark  brown,  soft,  very  wavy,  not  woolly; 

skin  43,  26,  10,  21. 

5,  cf .  A.  F.,  2  years.     Hair  dark  brown,  golden  on  its  curly  ends, 

otherwise  straight  and  soft;  skin  45,  28,  11,  16. 

6,  cf".  H.  F.,  3  months.    Hair  black  and  straight;  skin  30,  28,  i8,  24. 

Pedigree  8.     J.  Family. 

I  Gen. — H.  D.  A  light-colored  man,  whose  father  was  Irish  and  mother  a 
mulatto,  married  a  light-colored  woman  whose  father  was  a 
mulatto  and  mother  "brown."  They  had  four  children  (II 
I,  2,  3,  4)- 
II  Gen. — I,  9  .  L.  D.  [J.].  Hair  dark  brown  and  slightly  wavy;  skin  16,  26, 
23,  35.  Married  E.  C.  J.,  a  barrister,  whose  hair  is  black  and 
straight;  skin  13,  38,  15,  34.  Their  children  (III  i,  2,  3,  4) 
were  all  bom  with  black  hair  which  began  to  lighten  in  a  few 
weeks,  except  in  the  case  of  the  youngest  child. 
2,  9  .  —  D.,  t,  a  shade  darker  than  II  i. 


52        HEREDITY   OF    SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

3,  cf .  —  D.,  t,  darker  than  II  i  or  either  parent,  a  medium-colored. 

4,  cf .  E.  D.    Hair  slightly  wavy;  skin  g,  39,  16,  36.    Married  an  F2 

mulatto,  both  of  whose  grandfathers  were  white,  whose  hair 
is  black  and  very  curly  and  skin  10,  4S,  10,  32.     Children 
HI  5,  6,  7. 
Ill  Gen. — I,  cf .  E.  J.,  11  years.     Hair  medium  brown  and  almost  straight; 
would  easily  pass  for  white;  sldn  10,  27,  17,  46. 

2,  9  .  G.  J.,  8  years.     Hair  light  brown  (golden  about  face)  and 

very  curly;  skin  2 7,  24,  15,  34. 

3,  9  .  I.  J-,  7  years.    Hair  light  brown,  golden  about  face  and  very 

curly;  skin  25,  23,  15,  37. 

4,  9.  M.  J.,  2  years.    Hair  dark  brown  and  wavy;  skin  3  5,  35,  15, 15. 


5,  cT.  H.  D.,  5  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  black,  kinky;  skin  25,  36, 

II,  29. 

6,  9.1.  D.,  4  years.     Eyes  brown;  hair  medium  brown,  wavy; 

skin  18,  42,  10,  30. 

7,  9  .  E.  D.,  2  years.     Eyes  brown;  hair  light  brown,  curly;  skin 

23,  35,  14,  28. 

Pedigree  id.     M.  Family. 

Mulatto  X  White  Mating. 

I  Gen.—M.  M.,  bom  in  Jamaica  51  years  ago.  Illegitimate  child  of  L.  M.  L. 
(a  dark-eyed,  black  and  straight-haired  Jew)  and  a  ' '  sambo," 
i.e.,  dark-colored  woman.  His  hair  is  black  and  curly  and 
his  skin  35,28,10,27.  Married  R.  W.  C.  in  London  45  jj-ears 
ago,  whose  brown-eyed,  black-haired  father  was  of  an 
English,  and  remotely  French,  family,  and  whose  blue- 
eyed,  fair-haired  mother  was  of  German  extraction.  Her 
eyes  are  blue;  hair  yellow  and  straight;  skin  5,  34,  15,  46. 
They  have  had  ten  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  cf .  L.  W.  M.,  bom  England  24  years  ago.  Eyes  brown;  hair 
golden-brown  and  wavy;  skin  Hke  that  of  No.  8.  Now  in 
India. 

2,  9  .  t  I  day. 

3,  cf .  L.  M.,  bom  Jamaica  20  ^-ears  ago.     Ej^es  black;  hair  black 

and  curly;  shows  other  negro  characteristics;  skin  33,  28, 
ID,  29. 

4,  9  .  N.  M.,  bom  Africa  18  years  ago.    Eyes  gray;  hair  at  3  years 

golden,  became  brown,  and  is  wavy;  skin  5,  26,   19,   50. 
Except  for  curly  hair  she  would  pass  for  white. 

5,  cf.  R.  M.,  bom  Jamaica  14  years  ago.     E3'^es  black;  hair  black 

and  very  wavy;  shows  negro  blood;  skin  25,  29,  iS,  28. 

6,  cf.  S.  M.,  born  Jamaica  10  years  ago.      Eyes  hazel  gray;  hair 

medium  brown,  sHghtly  v/avy;  would  pass  for  white;  skin 
6,  32,  20,  42. 

7,  9.  C.  M.,  bom  Jamaica  10  years  ago  (twin  with  6).     Eyes  dark 

brown;  hair  black,  curly  ringlets;  shows  other  negro  char- 
acteristics; skin  35,  36,  15,  14. 

8,  cf .  M.   M.,    7   3^ears.     Eyes  hazel  gray  turning  darker;  hair 

medium  brown,  formerly  golden,  and  very  straight;  easily 
passes  for  white;  skin  5,  28,  17,  50. 


BERMUDIAN   FAMILIES.  53 

9,  cf.  L.  M.,   5  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

slightly  wavy;  skin  24,  26,  13,  37. 
10,  9.  E.  M.,  4  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  light  brown  and 
wavy;  shows  negro  blood  slightly,  skin  10,  35,  20,  35. 

Pedigree  ii.     C.  Family. 

I.  Gen. — E.  C,  the  son  of  two  strict  mulattoes;  hair  black  and  almost 
straight;  skin  34,  35,  15,  16.  Three  of  his  sibs  were  fairer 
and  one  darker  than  he.  Married  the  daughter  of  a  white 
Bermudian  and  a  brown-skinned  woman.  His  wife  has  black 
and  curly  hair;  skin  40,  t,k,  12,  13.  They  have  si.K  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  cT.  O.  C,  24  years.  Hair  black,  wav-y;  skin  Hghter  than  No.  6, 
say  N  28  per  cent. 

2,  9  •  L.  C.,  23  years.    Hair  black,  curly;  skin  47,  34,  7,  12. 

3,  cf .  R.  C,  21  years.    Hair  black,  crimpy;  skin  darker  than  No.  2, 

say  N  50  per  cent. 

4,  cT.  L.   C,   20  years.     Hair  dark  brown,  fairly  straight;  sldn 

lightest  of  fraternity,  say  N  25  per  cent. 

5,  9  .  H.  C,  16  years.    Hair  black,  wavy;  skin  35,  36,  13,  16. 

6,  d^.  H.  C,  13  years.    Hairdarkbrown,  straight;skin32,  35, 14, 19. 

Pedigree  12.     S.  F.\mily. 

I  Gen. — W.  S.,  the  son  of  a  curly-haired  strict  mulatto  and  his  wife,  who, 
at  60  years,  has  black  straight  hair  and  a  skin  color  S,  30, 
19,  43,  having  had  a  white  father  and  a  brown-skinned 
mother.  W.  S.  is  the  darkest  of  ten  living  sibs;  has  almost 
typical  negro  hair  and  skin  color  41,  30,  14,  15.  He 
married  a  woman  of  typical  negro  characteristics,  all  of 
whose  people  are  brown-skinned;  sldn  46,  34,  10,  9.  They 
had  nine  children,  all  w4th  typical  hair  and  dark  skin  color. 
II  Gen. — I,  9  .  I.  S.,  20  years.    Skin  lil^e  No.  4,  say  N  35  per  cent. 

2,  9  .  M.  S.,  18  years.    Skin  49,  31,  6,  14. 

3,  cf .  A.  S.,  16  years.    Skin  like  No.  5,  say  N  45  per  cent. 

4,  9  .  M.  S.,  14  years.    Skin  36,  39,  10,  15. 

5,  9  .  E.  S.,  12  3^ears.    Skin  44,  34,  10,  14. 

6,  9  .  E.  S.,  10  years.    Skin  35,  40,  14,  11. 

7,  cT.  R.  S.,  7  years.    Skin  44,  34,  10,  12. 

8,  d^.  F.  S.,  4  years.    Skin  52,  24,  9,  15. 

9,  9  .  D.  S.,  I  year.    Hair  not  yet  kinky,  only  curly;  skin  45,  34, 

10,  II. 

Pedigree  13.     W.  Family. 
Negro  X  White  and  Medium  X  Medium  Matings. 

I  Gen. — I.  D.  N.  W.  An  EngHshman  (eyes  dark;  hair  black  and  straight) 
married  a  typical  negress  whose  nose  was  broad,  face  heavy, 
and  ancestors,  so  far  as  known,  black;  skin  70,  17,  5,  3. 
Seven  of  their  eleven  children  grew  up  (II  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6, 
7,  8,  9,  10,  ii). 
2. —  C.  A  colored  man  whose  father  was  from  the  Barbados,  and 
whose  mother  was  light-colored,  called  mustee  or  three- 
fourths  white.  His  wife  was  an  Fi  mulatto  with  hair  that  was 
black  and  slightly  wavy.    They  had  two  children  (II 12,  13). 


54        HEREDITY   OF    SKIN    COLOR    IN    NEGRO-WHITE    CROSSES. 

II  Gen. — I,   t-  4  months. 

2,  f.  lo  years. 

3,  cf.  D.  N.  W.,  27  years,  absent. 

4,  f.    9  days. 

5,  9  .  25  years,  absent. 

6,  9  .  B.  W.  [A.],  23  years.     Hair  black,  very  wavy;  skin  34,  45, 

10,  II.     Married  a  man  of  the  same  color  and  has  a  child 
of  9  months;  skin  39,  30,  10,  21. 

7,  cT.  W.  W.,  21  years.    Hair  typically  negro;  skin  40,  36,  14,  10. 

8,  cf .  S.  J.  W.,  19  years.    Hair  typically  negro;  skin  53,  32,  7,  8. 

9,  f.    Infant. 

10,  d^.  A.  W.,  15  years,  absent. 

11,  9  .  A.  W.  [C],  29  years,  hair  black  and  wavy;  skin  45,  32,  10,  13. 

Married  a  man  (II  13)  with   black  and   curly  hair;  skin 
30,  40,  13,  7,  and  has  six  children  (III  i,  2,3,  4,  5,  6). 


12,  9  . —  C.  [S.].    Hair  dark  brown  and  wavy;  skin  27,   38,  14,  21. 

Married  —  S.,  whose  mother  was  English  and  father 
Spanish.  He  had  dark  straight  hair  and  a  white  skin,  say 
N  5  per  cent.  Their  seven  children  are  III  7,  8,  9,  10,  11, 
12,  13  (fig.  2). 

13,  cf .  R.  C,  married  No.  11,  above. 

Ill  Gen. — I,  cf.  R.  C,  9  years.    Hair  black  and  very  curly;  skin  43,  33,  11,  13. 

2,  9  .  M.  C,  8  years.    Hair  typically  negro;  skin  46,  35,  10,  9. 

3,  9  .  G.  C,  7  years.    Hair  typically  negro;  skin  45,  34,  10,  11. 

4,  cf .  E.  S.,  5  years.     Hair  medium  brown  and  very  curly;  skin 

44,  35.  10.  II- 

5,  9  .  G.  C.,  3  years.    Hair  light  brown,  woolly;  skin  15,  35,  20,  30. 

6,  9  .  M.  C.,  15  months.   Hair  dark  brown,  curly ;  skin  24,  39,  13,  24. 


7,  9  .  M.  S.,  14  years.    Eyes  dark;  hair  black  and  very  curly;  skin 

30,  38,  13,  19. 

8,  9  .  W.  S.,  12  years.    Hair  dark  brown,  very  wavy;  skin  29,  37, 

13,  21. 

9,  cf.  A.  S.,  II  years.    Eyes  dark;  hair  black,  nearly  straight;  skin 

36,  30,  14,  20. 

10,  9  .  V.  S.,  9  years.    Eyes  dark;  hair  dark  brown,  slightly  wavy; 

skin  32,  40,  10,  18. 

11,  c^.  E.  S.,  7  years.     Eyes  blue  with  brown  on  margin  of  pupil; 

hair  medium  brown,  straight;  skin  10,  35,  10,  45. 

12,  cf .  t,  infant. 

13,  cf .  P.  S.,  2  years.    Eyes  dark  gray;  hair  flaxen;  skin  5,  32,  13,  50. 

Pedigree  14.     T.  Family. 

White  X  Dark  Mating. 

I  Gen. T.,  a  white  Bermudian  with  blue  eyes  and  curly  brown  hair  had, 

illegitimately,  by  a  woman  with  curly  black  hair  and  skin 
43,  39,  10,  8,  whose  father  was  dark  and  whose  mother  was 
an  Fi  mulatto,  a  son. 
II  Gen. — I,  d^.  H.,  4  years.     Eyes  dark  blue;  hair  light  brown  and  wavy; 
skin  30,  34,  20,  16. 


BERMUDIAN   FAMILIES.  55 

Pedigree   15.     H.  Family. 
Mulatto  X  Black  Mating. 

I  Gen. — S.  H.  (whose  parents  were  brown-skinned),  skin  46,  32,  7,  15; 
married  an  Fi  mulatto  woman  with  curly  black  hair;  skin 
39,  38,  10,  13.  Have  eleven  children,  all  with  typical 
negro  hair. 

II  Gen. — I,  9  ■  E.  H.,  15  years.    Skin  44,  40,  10,  6. 

2-5,  f.  Infant. 

6,  cf .  M.  H.,  II  years.    Skin  46,  32,  9,  13. 

7,  cf .  D.  H.,  8  years.    Skin  60,  22,  8,  10. 

8,  9  .  H.  H.,  6  years.    Skin  53,  29,  8,  lo. 

9,  cf .  L.  H.,  3  years.    Skin  46,  35,  10,  9. 

10,  cf .  W.  H.,  12  months.    Skin  45,  35,  10,  10. 

11,  f.   13  months.    Skin  say  N  40  per  cent. 

Pedigree  16.     H.  Family. 
Mulatto  X  White. 

I  Gen. — A.  H.,  70  years,  son  of  H.  S.  H.,  a  white  man,  and  a  mulatto  woman. 
Black,  curly  hair;  skin  28,  30,  15,  27.  Married  a  white 
woman  with  eyes  formerly  blue,  now  a  faded  brown;  and 
straight,  medium-brown  hair;  skin  7,  30,  15.  48.  They 
had  eight  children,  five  of  whom  are  living. 
II  Gen. — I,  9  ,  t,  I  year. 

2,  cf ,  t,  14  years. 

3,  cf .  O.  H.,  46  years.    Blue  eyes;  light  brown,  straight  hair;  sandy 

mustache;  skin  N  7  per  cent. 

4,  9.  M.  H.  [T.],  38  years.     Dark  blue  eyes;  dark  brown,  very 

wavy  hair;  skin  10,  37,  18,  35.  Married  T.,  a  colored  man; 
skin  say  N  50  per  cent.  They  have  a  son,  6  months,  eyes 
blue;  hair  dark  brown  and  curly;  skin  8,  31,  13,  48. 

5,  cf .  J.  H.,  36  years.    Eyes  dark  blue;  hair  medium  brown  and 

curly;  except  for  hair  would  easily  pass  for  white;  skin  7, 
20,  16,  57.  Married  a  typical  brown-sldnned  woman,  all 
of  whose  ancestors  were  brown;  skin  50,  25,  8,  17.  They 
have  one  daughter,  R.  H.,  16  months,  eyes  blue;  hair  light 
brown  and  curly;  skin  23,  37,  16,  24. 

6,  cf .  L.  F.  H.,  33  years.    Said  to  have  dark  eyes  and  black  curly 

hair ;  skin  say  N  5  per  cent.  Married  a  dark-colored  woman ; 
skin  50,  29,  7,  14.    They  have  three  children  (III  i,  2,  3). 

7,  cf,  t.  twin  to  8. 

8,  cf .  E.  H.    Skin  say  N  5  per  cent.     Married  a  medium-colored 

woman,  whose  father  was  a  mulatto  and  whose  mother  was 
brown-skinned.  Hair  fairly  straight;  skin  31,  39,  15.  15. 
They  ha\-e  a  son,  3  years;  eyes  brown;  hair  light  brown 
and  wavy;  skin  14,  38,  18,  30. 

III  Gen. — I,  9  .  V.  H.,  6  years.    Eyes  dark  blue  and  brown  in  center;  hair 

light  brown  and  very  curly;  skin  35,  30,  14,  21. 

2,  9.  J.  H.     Eyes  light  brown;  hair  light  brown,  golden  on  the 

ends,  and  wavy;  skin  20,  40,  17,  23. 

3,  cf .  B.  H.,   12  months.     Hair  medium  brown  and  curly;  skin 

27,  34,  15,  14. 


56        HEREDITY   OF    SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

Pedigree  17.     F.  Family. 

Black  X  White. 

I  Gen. — J.  F.,  70  years.    A  white  man  with  medium  brown  eyes  and  hair; 
skin  7,  40,  18,  35.     Married  a  black  woman  with  typical 
negro  features;  all  her  people  are  dark;  skin  75,  18,  4,  3. 
They  have  six  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  c^.  J.  F.,  44  years.    Skin  say  N  30  per  cent. 

2,  9.  E.  F.  [T.],  38  years. 

3,  cf .  G.  F.,  37  years,  absent.    Skin  said  to  be  N  30  per  cent. 

4,  9.  C.   F.    [D.],   35   years.     Hair  black  and  very  curly;  skin 

32,  42,  8,  18.  She  married  T.  D.,  a  light-colored  man, 
whose  father  was  a  mulatto  and  whose  mother  was  brown ; 
skin  15,  33,  20,  32.     They  have  five  children  (III  i,  2, 

3,  4.  5)- 

5,  9  .  T.  F.  [E.].    Hair  black  and  very  wavy;  skin  31,  34,  14,  21. 

She  married  D.  E.,  whose  paternal  grandfather  was  white 
and  his  other  ancestors  brown-skinned;  skin  say  N  30 
per  cent.  They  have  seven  children  (III  6,  7,  8,  9,  10, 
II,  12). 

6,  cf .  A.  F.,  31  years.    Hair  black  and  slightly  curly;  skin  25,  38, 

17,  20. 
Ill  Gen. — I,  cf .  E.   D.,    11   years.     Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  black  and 
straight;  skin  20,  39,  11,  30. 

2,  cT.  I.  D.,  8  years.     Eyes  brown;  hair  dark  brown  and  kinky; 

skin  26,  40,  8,  26. 

3,  9  .  L.  D.,  7  years.    Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  light  brown  and 

straight,  but  curls  on  ends;  skin  16,  39,  10,  35. 

4,  9  .  M.  D.,  6  years.    Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  Hght  brown  and 

wavy. 

5,  d^.  R.  D.,  2  years.    Skin  15,  36,  19,  30. 


6,  cf .  I.  E.,  17  years.    Skin  say  N  50  per  cent. 
7,9.1.  E.,  15  years.     Hair  black  and  very  curly;  skin  34,  40, 
14,  12. 

8,  9  .  C.  E.,  12  years.    Tj^pical  negro  hair;  skin  45,  30,  9,  16. 

9,  d^.  H.  E.,  7  years.    Eyes  lighter  than  his  sibs;  hair  dark  brown 

and  slightly  wavy;  skin  30,  39,  10,  21. 

10,  cf .  E.  E.,  4  years.     Eyes  gray-brown  or  hazel,  hair  brown  and 

slightly  wavy;  skin  25,  37,  13,  25. 

11,  9.  P.  E.,  died  14  months.     Said  to  have  skin  say  N  45  per 

cent. 

12,  cT.  C.  E.,  died  9  months.    Hair  like  III  8,  but  kinky;  skin  say 

N2S. 

Pedigree  18.     T.  Family. 

I  Gen. T.     About  the  color  of  his  wife,  who  has  typical  curly  hair; 

skin  49,  26,  II,  14.    They  have  four  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  cf .  A.  T.,  10  years.    Skin  25,  38,  17,  20. 

2,  9  .  L.  T.,  7  years.    Skin  46,  35,  10,  9. 

3,  cT.  W.  T.,  6  years.    Skin  47,  35,  7,  11. 

4,  9 .  A.  T.,  6  months.    Skin  27,  29,  15,  29. 


BERMUDIAN   FAMILIES.  57 

Pedigree  19.     I.  Family. 

I  Gen. — There  were  two  brothers  and  a  sister  bom  of  W.  I.,  a  mulatto,  and 
his  wife,  also  a  mulatto,  the  daughter  of  a  white  man. 
(i)  One  brother,  J.  I.,  married  a  woman  whom  he  re- 
sembled in  skin  color;  her  father  was  white,  while  her 
mother  was  a  mulatto;  her  hair  was  black  and  straight, 
but  curly  at  the  ends;  skin  14,  40,  15,  31,  They  had  four 
children  (II  i,  2,  3,  4).  (2)  Another  brother,  A.  I.,  who 
could  pass  for  white,  married  a  medium-colored  woman 
whose  father  was  a  mulatto  and  whose  mother  was  brown- 
skinned.  Eyes  hazel;  hair  dark  brown  and  curly;  skin 
19,  36,  20,  25.  They  had  three  children  (II  5,  6,  7).  (3) 
The  sister,  with  hair  black  and  ver>'  curly;  sldn  10,  48,  10, 
32,  married  E.  D.,  a  very  light-colored  man,  with  slightly 
wa\^^  hair;  skin  9,  39,  16,  36.  His  fraternity  and  ancestry 
are  described  in  Pedigree  8.  Thcv  had  three  children 
(II  8,  9,  10). 
II  Gen. — I,  9  .  L.  I.,  16  years.    Eyes  black;  hair  black  and  straight;  skin 


(II  8,  9,  10). 

I, 

9. 

L.  I.,  16  years 
9,  34,  20,  37. 

2, 

9. 

G.  I.,  14  years. 

3. 

&. 

W.  I.,  13  years. 

4. 

9. 

R.  I.,  II  years. 

Hair  black  and  very  wa\'3^;  skin  15,  41,  20,24. 
Hair  black  and  straight;  skin  17,  43,  15,  25. 
Hair  black  and  straight;  skin  16,  50,  15,  19. 

5,  9.  M.  I.,  13  years.    Ej^es  black;  hair  reddish-brown;  skin  17, 

35.  20,  28. 

6,  9  .  H.  I..  9  3-ears.    Eyes  gray;  hair  dark  bromi  and  curly;  skin 

13.  35.  20,  32. 

7,  9  .  G.  I.,  5  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  brown  and  curly;  skin  18, 

35,  20,  27. 


8,  cf.  H.  D.,  5  years.    Skin  25,  36,  10,  29. 

9,  9  .  I.  D.,  4  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  medium  brown  and  wavy; 

sldn  iS,  42,  10,  30. 
10,  9.  E.  D.,  2  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  light  brown  and  curly; 
skin  23,  35,  14,  28. 

Pedigree  20.     J.  Family, 

Fi  Mulatto  X  "Mustee." 

I  Gen. — C.  J.  An  Fi  mulatto,  the  son  of  —  J.,  a  Dane,  from  the  Danish 
West  Indies,  and  a  brown-skinned  woman.  He  has  very 
curly  black  hair,  and  his  skin  is  21,  40,  16,  23.  His  \x\ie, 
a  "mustee,"  has  dark  bro\ATi  and  very  wavy  hair;  skin  15, 
30,  21,  34;  and  is  the  mother  of  his  twelve  children,  six  of 
whom  were  absent. 
II  Gen. — I,  cf .  W.  J.,  iS  years.  Eyes  badly  crossed;  hair  very  curly;  skin 
40,  29,  15,  16. 

2,  9  .  V.  J.,  14  years.    Eyes  slightly  crossed;  hair  very  curly;  skin 

30,  32,  16,  22. 

3,  9  .  R.  J.,  13  years.    Hair  very  curly;  skin  26,  35,  16,  23. 

4,  cf .  S.  J.,  II  years.    Hair  very  curly;  skin  35,  32,  10,  13. 

5,  9  .  A.  J.,  9  years.    Hair  very  curly;  skin  33,  40,  16,  11. 

6,  9  .  H.  J.,  7  years.    Hair  very  curly;  skin  20,  35,  18,  27 


58        HEREDITY    OF    SKIN    COLOR    IN    NEGRO-WHITE    CROSSES. 

Pedigree  21.     G.  and  O.  Family. 

(Inheritable  Deafness  Beginning  at  about  16  Years  of  Age.) 

I  Gen. — Four  brothers  married  four  sisters.  They  were  the  sons  of  a  very 
light-colored  man,  whose  father  was  an  Englishman  and 
whose  mother  was  half  white  and  half  Indian,*  and  of  a 
mulatto  woman.  Their  wives  were  Fi  mulattoes,  their 
mother  having  been  a  very  black  African  v/ith  thin  lips  and 
nose,  said  to  have  been  derived  from  an  Abyssinian  prince. 

1 .  The  first  brother,  T.  O.,  a  mason,  whose  hair  was  black 
and  nearly  straight;  skin  30,  34,  10,  26  (by  lamplight) ;  mar- 
ried E.  G.,  who  had  very  curly  black  hair;  skin  22,28,  17,  33. 
They  had  eight  children  (II  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8).    (See  fig.  4.) 

2.  The  second  brother,  E.  O.,  married  the  second  sister, 
—  G.,  who  has  black,  quite  curly  hair;  skin  34,  28,  12,  26. 
They  had  no  children. 

3.  The  third  brother,  J.  0.,  84  years  old,  whose  eyes  are 
medium  brown;  hair  dark  brown  and  wavy;  skin  7,  39,  20, 
34,  could  easily  pass  for  a  New  England  farmer  (fig.  3) 
and  is  very  deaf.  He  married  —  G. ,  who  has  slightly  Indian 
features,  hair  black  and  straight,  but  slightly  curly  on  the 
ends;  skin  40,  36,  20,  4.  They  have  seven  children  (II 
9,  10,  II,  12,  13,  14,  15).     (See  fig.  3.) 

4.  The  fourth  brother  married  a  fourth  sister.  They  had 
no  children. 

5.  The  brothers  had  a  brother,  F.  O.,  who  married  into 
another  family  (see  Pedigree  23,  I  Gen.). 

6.  The  sisters  had  a  brother,  L.  G.,  whose  hair  was  black 
and  straight;  skin  32,  41,  14,  13.  He  married  an  Fi  mulatto 
woman,  39  years  old,  who  had  black  wav}^  hair,  and  skin 
39,  37,  10,  14.    They  had  twelve  children  (II  16-27). 

II  Gen. — I,  cT.  A.  O.,  42  years.  Hair  black  and  nearly  straight;  skin  22,  36, 
13,  29  (fig.  4).  Has  two  children,  both  with  black,  slightly 
wavy  hair,  and  skin  about  N  30  per  cent. 

2,  9  .  I.  O.    Absent. 

3,  9  .  G.  O.,  38  years.     Extremel}'  deaf;  hair  black,  wavy;  skin 

39,  32,  13,  16. 

4,  cT.  C.  O.,  36  years.     Features  slightly  Indian;  very  deaf;  hair 

black  and  nearly  straight;  skin  30,  36,  13,  21;  married,  but 
no  children. 

5,  9  .  E.  O.  [A.],  34  years.     Very  deaf;  eyes  yellow-brown;  hair 

black,  wavy;  skin  33,  37,  15,  15.  She  married  a  medium- 
colored  man,  C.  A.,  son  of  a  dark  brown  man  but  lighter 
mother.  He  has  gray  eyes;  medium  brown,  very  curly 
hair,  and  skin  37,  35,  14,  14  (by  lamplight).  They  had 
three  children;  only  one  lived  (III  i). 

6,  cf .  H.  O.,  34  years.    Twin  to  II  5;  is  like  II  4;  absent. 

7,  cT.  J.  O.,  32  years.     Features  like  an  Indian;  hair  black  and 

straight;  skin  40,  30,  15,  15  (by  lampHght). 

8,  cf.  C.  O.,  30  years.    Deaf. 


*  During  the  Pequot  war  in  King  Philip's  time,  some  of  his  tribe,  including  his  wife 
and  son,  were  carried  to  Bermuda  as  prisoners.  Old  Susannah,  the  mother  of  this  woman, 
was  one  of  the  prisoners  and  claimed  to  be  descended  from  King  Philip. 


BERMUDIAN   FAMILIES.  59 

9,  9  .  E.  O.  [H.].  Resembles  her  mother  (I  3).  Hair  black, 
straight,  but  curly  on  ends;  skin  45,  26,  9,  20.  Married 
O.  H.,  a  contractor,  both  of  whose  grandfathers  were  white. 
Hair  black  and  straight;  skin  26,  38,  17,  19.  They  have 
two  children  (HI  2,  3). 

10,  cf .  E.  O.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black,  curls  sHghtly  at  ends; 

easily  pass  for  white;  skin  7,  40,  19,  34.  Married  a  brown- 
skinned  woman  who  is  now  dead;  they  had  three  children 
(III  4,  5,  6). 

11,  cf .  F.  O.    Hair  black  and  straight;  skin  21,  41,  20,  18.    Married 

a  dark  woman  from  a  brown-skinned  family ;  she  has  typical 
negro  hair;  skin  53,  30,  8,  9.  They  have  seven  children 
(HI  7,  8,  9,  10,  II,  12,  13). 

12,  9.  S.  O.,  40  years  (?).     Very  deaf;  hair  black,  straight,  Httle 

wavy  on  ends;  skin  26,  43,  13,  18. 

13,  9.  L.   O.    [T.],    40   years.      Features   somewhat   Indian;   hair 

black,  straight, but  a  little  wavy  on  the  ends;  skin  22,  26,  21, 
31.  She  married  J.  T.,  with  wavy  black  hair;  skin  65,  21, 
4,  10.    They  have  four  children  (III  14,  15,  16,  17). 

14,  cf .  W.  O.,  26  years.    High  cheek  bones,  almost  typical  Indian 

face;  hair  black  and  straight;  skin  38,  40,  10,  12.  He  mar- 
ried a  medium-colored  woman,  one  of  whose  grandfathers 
may  have  been  white.  Her  hair  is  black  and  curly;  skin 
40,  34,  II,  15.  They  had  five  children  (HI  18,  19,  20,  21,  22). 

15,  9  ,  t  3  months. 

16,  cf .  H.  G.,  22  years.     Hair  black,  wavy;  skin  43,  38,  11,  8. 

17,  cf .  A.  G.,  21  years.    Typical  negro  hair;  skin  like  II  25. 

18,  cf .  C.  G.,  20  years.    Like  his  mother  (I  6);  absent. 

19,  9  .  E.  G.,  18  years.    Hair  black,  wavy;  skin  34,  39,  11,  16. 

20,  cf .  E.  G.,  17  years.    Hair  black,  straight;  skin  say  N  30  per  cent. 

21,  9  .  R.  G.,  16  years.    Typical  negro  hair;  skin  35,  29,  16,  20  (by 

lamplight). 

22,  9  .  B.  G.,  14  years.  Hair  black  and  very  wa\^;  skin  38,  40,  14,  8. 

23,  9  .  E.  G.,  12  years.  Hair  dark  brown,  straight;  skin  42,  43,  10,  5. 

24,  cf .  J.  G.,  10  years.  Hair  black  and  straight;  skin  56,  31,  6,  7. 

25,  cf .  G.  G.,  8  years.  Typical  negro  hair;  skin  54,  28,  6,  12. 

26,  9.  G.  G.,6years.  Hair  coarse,  black  and  wavy;  skin  48,  38,  7,  7. 

27,  9  .  B.  G.,  4  years.  Hair  dark  brown  and  straight;  skin  42,  36, 

II,  II. 
ni  Gen. —  I,  9  .  E.  A.,  4  years.    Eyes  gray;  hair  medium  brown  and  curly; 
skin  37,  35,  14,  14.    Had  two  brothers  who  died  at  7  and 
10  weeks,  respectively  (fig.  4). 


2,  cf .  P.  H.,  17  years.    Hair  black,  straight;  skin  57,  25,  6,  12. 

3,  9  .  I.  H.,  II  years.    Hair  black,  straight;  skin  42,  25,  5,  28. 


4,  9  .  M.  O.    Skin  say  N  27  per  cent. 

5,  cf .  L.  O.    Darker  than  sisters;  absent. 

6,  9  ■  I.  O.    Typical  negro  kinky  hair;  skin  32,  36,  14,  18. 


7,  9  .  W.  O.,  18  years.    Hair  black,  very  curly,  not  kinky,  52,  25, 

7,  16. 

8,  cf .  I.  O.,  15  years.    Typical  black  negro  hair;  skin  57,  27,,  7,  13. 


60        HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

9,  9  .  M.  O.,  14  years.    Typical  black  curly  hair;  skin  45,  31,  10,  14. 

10,  cf .  W.  0.,  II  years.    Hair  black,  wavy;  skin  42,  34,  11,  13  (by 

lamplight) . 

11,  9  .  G.  O.,  9  years.    Hair  dark  brown,  very  wavy;  skin  46,  28, 

II,  15- 

12,  cJ".  E.  O.,  6  years.    Hair  dark  brown,  very  curly;  skin  46,  28, 

II,  15- 

13,  cT.  E.  O.,  6  months.    Hair  dark  brown,  soft  and  straight,  may 

curl  later;  skin  35,  35,   10,  20.     All  the  children  of  this 
fraternity  have,  according  to  their  mother,  grown  darker. 

14,  9  •  A.  T.,  16  years.    A  little  deaf;  hair  black,  curty;  skin  25,  40, 

13,  22. 

15,  cf^.  C.  T.,  12  3'ears.    Hair  black,  wavy;  skin  25,  35,  15,  25. 

16,  9.  M.T.,8years.  Hair  black  and  quite  curly;  skin  27,  38,  15,20. 

17,  9  .  H.  T.,  4  years.    Hair  dark  brown  and  very  curly;  skin  36,  30, 


18,  9  .  M.  O.,  13  years.    Features  somewhat  Indian.    Hair  coarse, 

black,  like  an  Indian's,  wavy;  skin  40,  40,  10,  10. 

19,  cT.  R.  0.,  12  3^ears.    Not  seen. 

20,  t  14  months. 

21,  cf.  H.0.,7years.  Stutters;  hair  black,  straight;  skin  50,  27,  7, 16. 

22,  9  .  V.  O.,  5  years.    Hair  black,  wavy;  skin  50,  30,  8,  12. 

Pedigree  22.     T.  Family. 

I  Gen* — In  this  family  there  are  two  sisters,  the  daughters  of  E.  T.,  a 
mulatto  with  blue  eyes  and  dark  brown,  wavy  hair,  and  his 
wife,  a  brown-skinned  woman,  with  black,  straight  hair. 
There  were  also  four  medium-colored  daughters  and  one 
medium-colored  son.  (i)  The  first,  T.  T.,  who  has  wavy 
dark  brown  hair  and  whose  skin  is  20,  35,  19,  26,  married 
W.  L.,  a  man  darker  than  herself,  with  skin  about  N  25  per 
cent,  and  has  two  daughters  (II  i,  2).  (2)  The  second, 
0.  T.,  23  years  old,  who  has  brown  eyes  and  slightly  wavy 
hair,  and  skin  20,  33,  16,  31,  married  J.  A.,  a  fair  white 
man  with  blue  eyes,  whose  skin  is  say  N  5  per  cent.  They 
have  three  children  (II  3,  4,  5). 
l\Gen. — I,  9  •  L.  L.,  12  years.  Hair  dark  brown  and  very  curly;  skin 
22,  58,  12,  8. 
2,  9.  G.  L.,  5  years.  Hair  dark  brown  and  slightly  wavy;  skin 
30,  44,  IS,  II. 


3,  cf .  B.  A.,  6  years.    Eyes  and  hair  light  brown;  would  pass  for 

white;  skin  say  N  10  per  cent. 

4,  d^.  M.  A.,  4  3^ears.    Eyes  blue  and  hair  flaxen;  very  fair;  skin 

2,  31,  20,  47. 

5,  cf .  R.  A.,  2  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  light  brown,  golden 

and  curly  on  ends;  skin  9,  31,  18,  42. 

*  The  mother's  father's  sister  of  the  sisters  of  the  first  generation  was  a  mulatto.  She 
married  a  white  man  and  had  a  Hght-colored  daughter,  who  married  in  turn  a  white  man 
and  had  a  son  (T.  F.).  This  son,  who  would  pass  anywhere  for  white, married  a  woman 
who  also  passes  for  white  and  has  a  number  of  children,  none  of  whom  show  signs  of  colored 
blood. 


BERMUDIAN   FAMILIES.  61 

Pedigree  23.     J.  Family. 

I  Gen. — Two  children  were  bom  of  a  mulatto  father,  ].  ].,  and  a  colored 
mother,  who  would  pass  for  white. 

1.  A  son,  A.  J.,  who  had  wavy,  black  hair  and  a  dark 
brown  mustache  with  a  reddish  tinge,  and  .skin  18,  34,  17.  6g, 
married  E.  O.,  daughter  of  F.  O.,  a  mulatto  with  gray  eyes 
(see  Pedigree  21,  I  Gen.),  and  his  wife  (a  typical  bro\\Ti- 
skinned  woman,  with  possibly  a  little  white  blood;  skin 
32,  38,  13,  17).  E.  O.  has  very  dark  brown,  straight  hair; 
skin  38,  41,  II,  10.  They  had  eight  children  (II  i,  2,  3,  4,  5, 
6,  7,  8).  E.  O.  has  a  sister,  A.  O.  [B.]  whose  hair  is  black  and 
wavy;  skin  27,  45,  16,  12.  There  are  others  in  the  same 
fraternity  with  brown  skin  and  wavy  hair.  (See  figs.  7  and  8.) 

2.  The  daughter,  E.  J.  (eyes  dark  blue;  hair  dark  brown 
and  wavy;  might  pass  for  white;  skin  20,  30,  21,  29),  mar- 
ried A.  P.,  a  man  whose  father  was  mulatto  and  whose 
mother  was  brown-skinned.  Four  sons  were  bom  to  them 
(II  9,  10,  II,  12). 

II  Geyi. — The  parents  of  the  following  somewhat  exceptional  fraternity  have 
a  good  reputation  and  the  attitude  of  the  mother  favors  the 
conclusion  of  the  legitimacy  of  all  the  children  (fig.  8) : 

1,  9  .  H.  J.    Hair  black,  wavy;  skin  20,  45,  20,  15. 

2,  9  .  D.  J.,  15  3'ears.     Eyes  gray,  v*dth  a  little  yellow  pigment; 

hair  flaxen  in  babyhood,  now  light  yellow-brown,  and  curly 
on  the  ends;  easily  passes  for  white;  skin  17,  35,  20,  28. 

3,  cf.  H.  J.,  12  years.     Eyes  brown;  hair  very  dark  brown  and 

straight;  skin  29,  27,  18,  26. 

4,  9.  M.  J.,   II  years.     Eyes  light  yellow-brown;  hair  medium 

brown  and  very  wa\y;  skin  28,  40,  17,  15. 

5,  9  .  M.  J.,  9  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  and  a  little 

wavy  on  ends;  skin  35,  33,  15,  17. 

6,  9  .  W.  J.,  4  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  wavy;  skin 
36,  37,  II,  16. 

A.  J.,  t  15  months.    As  light  as  II  2,  but  grew  darker. 
E.  J.,  I  year.    Typical  negro  hair;  skin  54,  35,  5,  6.* 


7. 

&. 

8, 

0  . 

9. 

&. 

10, 

cf. 

A.  P.,  II  years.    Hair  brown  and  fairly  straight;  brown  skin. 
L.  P.,  7  years.     Eyes  blue;  hair  formerly  dark  brown  and 
straight,  now  light  brown  and  very  curly;  skin  18,  35,  20,  27. 

11,  cf .  I-  P-,  3  years.    Ej^es  dark  blue ;  hair  fonnerly  a  darker  brown. 

now  Hght  brown,  golden  about  the  face  and  curly;  skin 
24,  35,  19,  22. 

12,  cT.  G.  P.,  17  months.    Has  spinal  trouble,  is  puny  and  anaemic; 

eyes  brown;  hair  dark  brown  and  curly;  skin  15,  21,  22,  42. 

Pedigree  24.     P.  Family. 

Fi  Mulatto  X  Medium  Colored. 

I  Gen. — There  were  two  colored  women  who  were  the  daughters  of  a  white 
father  with  blue  eyes  and  light  hair  and  a  brown-skinned 
mother,     (i)  One  of  them,  B.  G.  (eyes  brown;  hair  dark 


*  Mother  called  her  the  "black  baby"  and  wonders  if  a  foolish  colored  girl  who  was 
living  with  them  during  l;er  pregnancy  marked  the  child.  Father  not  angry  with  her, 
but  says  the  baby  takes  after  his  grandmother. 

5 


62       HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

brown  and  wavy;  skin  33,  35,  14,  18),  married —  P.,  said  to 
be  of  the  same  color ;  eyes  gray  or  blue ;  hair  black  and  wavy. 
They  have  two  children  (II  1,2).  (2)  The  other,  A.  G.  (29 
years  old,  eyes  black,  hair  black,  and  straight;  would  pass 
for  a  brunet;  skin  7,  42,  20,  31),  married  E.  H.,  who  has 
black  wavy  hair;  skin  say  N  40  per  cent.  They  have  three 
children  (II  3,  4.  s)- 
II  Gen. — I,  cf .  R.  P.,  4  years.  Eyes  clear  blue;  hair  flaxen,  curls,  becoming 
medium  brown  near  his  head;  easily  pass  for  a  white  child; 
skin  5,  40,  18,  37.  _ 
2,  9 .  M.  P.,  2  years.  Hair  medium  brown  and  straight,  lighter 
on  its  curly  ends;  skin  34,  35,  15,  16. 


3,  9  .  O.  H.,  4  years.    Eyes  black;  hair  soft  mediimi  brown,  a  bit 

curly  on  ends;  skin  5,  35,  24,  36. 

4,  9  .  N.  H.,  2  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  brown,  wavy;  skin  5,  38, 

24,  33- 

5,  9  .  M.  H.,  4  months.    Skin  5,  47,  20,  28. 

Pedigree  25.     B.  Family. 

A  Mixture  of  Colored,  Indian,  and  Irish  Blood;  Red  Hair  Segregated  in 

Youngest  Generation. 

I  Gen. — Five  children  were  bom  of  J.  B.,  whose  father  was  an  Irishman  and 
whose  mother  was  colored.  He  has  black,  straight  hair 
and  skin,  say  N  10  per  cent,  and  his  wife  is  a  light-colored 
woman;  skin  say  N  20  per  cent. 

1.  The  first  daughter,  E.  B.  (with  features  strikingly 
Indian,  about  6  feet  tall,  wiry,  high  cheek  bones,  eyes  dark 
brown;  hirr  black  and  almost  straight;  skin  23,  43,  18,  16), 
married  J.  M.,  the  son  of  a  Scotchman  and  his  wife,  niece 
of  J.  B.  described  above.  She  had  reddish  hair  (from  an 
Irish  ancestor)  and  very  fair  skin.  J.  M.'s  eyes  were  slightly 
brown;  hair  dark  brown  and  straight;  skin  7,  29,  30,  34. 
They  had  three  children  (II  i,  2,  3).     (See  fig.  6.) 

2.  The  second  daughter,  A.  B.  [C.]  (eyes  dark  brown; 
hair  dark  brown,  wavy;  skin  17,  40,  20,  23),  married  E.  C, 
son  of  white  man  and  a  woman  whose  parents  were  both 
colored.  He  has  dark  brown  eyes;  hair  dark  brown  and 
nearly  straight;  skin  20,  37,  20,  23.  They  have  four  chil- 
dren (II  4,  5,  6,  7).    (See  fig.  5.) 

3.  One  son,  A.  B.,  skin  said  to  be  N  20  per  cent,  married 
a  medium-colored  woman  whose  father  was  brown-skinned 
and  curly-haired  and  mother  mulatto.  She  has  dark  brown 
eyes;  black,  wavy  hair;  skin  28,  46,  10,  16.  They  have 
three  children  (II  8,  9,  10). 

4.  Another  son,  skin  say  N  17  per  cent,  married  into 
another  family  (see  Pedigree  33,  I  Generation). 

5.  A  third  son,  A.  B.  (eyes  greenish;  hair  dark  brown  and 
kinky;  otherwise  would  pass  for  white),  skin  6,  35,  21,  38; 
married  a  medium-colored  woman,  with  a  very  broad,  flat 
nose;  hair  dark  brown  and  very  wavy;  skin  35,  40,  13,  12. 
They  have  three  children  (II  11,  12,  13). 


BERMUDIAN   FAMILIES.  63 

A  relative  on  the  maternal  side,  S.  M.,  son  of  a  medium- 
colored  man  and  a  woman  who  would  pass  for  white  (her 
father  having  been  white  and  her  mother  one-fourth  white) 
has  skin  say  N  2  5  per  cent.  Married  a  woman,  the  daughter 
of  a  nearly  white  man  and  white  woman;  hair  dark  brown 
and  straight;  skin  18,  43,  18,  21.  They  have  three  children 
(II  14,  15,  16). 
11  Gen. — I,  9.  C.  M.,  13  years.  Eyes  sHghtly  brown,  like  father's;  hair 
golden  in  babyhood,  now  light  brown  and  curls  about  her 
face;  skin,  which  freckles  a  little,  16,  44,  20,  20. 

2,  9.  E.  M.,  9  j^ears.     Eyes  yellow-green;  hair  bright  red  and 

perfectly  straight;  freckles  badly;  skin  6,  21,  20,  53. 

3,  9  .  J.  AI.,  5  years.    Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  medium  brown  and 

wavy;  skin  15,  44,  21,  20. 


4,  9  .  P.  C,  14  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black  and  wavy; 

v;ould  pass  for  white;  clear  skin  5,  31,  23,  41. 

5,  9  .  K.  C,  10  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown  and 

perfectly  straight;  skin  15,  39,  20,  26. 

6,  c?'.  A.  C,  7  years.    Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  "ginger-colored," 

approaching  reddish,  wavy;  skin  19,  39,  19,  23. 

7,  o^-  3  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  formerly  darker,  now  Hght 

brown  with  golden  curled  ends;  skin  16,  41,  20,  23. 


8,  9  .  G.  B.,  6  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  fairly  light  brown, 

very  curly;  skin  20,  45,  15,  20. 

9,  9.  F.  B.,4years.    Resembles  sister  (II  8)  in  eyes,  hair,  and  skin. 
10,  9  .  I.  B.,  9  months.     Hair  when  bom  black  and  straight,  but 

in  its  place  came  bright  red,  straight  hair  like  II  2 ;  skin 
10,  45,  16,  29. 


11,  9  .  D.  B.,  10  years.    Hair  black  when  born,  but  now  dark  brown 

and  very  wavy;  skin  34,  42,  13,  11. 

12,  9  .  H.  B.,  7  years.    Hair  dark  brown,  curly;  skin  28,  45,  12,  15. 

13,  9  .  V.  B.,  5  years.    Hair  dark  brown,  curly;  skin  22,  44,  15, 19. 


14,  <f.  E.  M.,  5  years.    Eyes  dark  brown ;  hair  medium  brown,  curly; 

skin  29,  50,  10,  II. 

15,  9  .  L.  M . ,  4  years.    Eyes  light  brown ;  hair  medium  brown,  wa\'y ; 

skin  30,  45,  15,  10. 

16,  9  .  M.  M.,  2  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  medium  brown,  light  on 

the  ends;  skin  27,  45,  15,  13. 

Pedigree  26.     P.  Family. 

I  Gen. — J.  P.,  a  light-colored  man  (son  of  a  brown-skinned  man  and  his 
wife  who  was  three-fourths  wliite),  has  dark  bro\^^l,  com- 
paratively straight  hair;  skin  say  N  20  per  cent.  Married 
a  liK'ht-colored  woman  with  gray  eyes  and  medium  brown, 
slightly  wavy  hair,  the  daughter  of  a  white  soldier  and  a 
mulatto.  Skin  16.33,22,29  (fig-  9).  They  were  the  parents 
of  five  children.    (See  fig.  10.) 


64        HEREDITY   OF    SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

II  Gen. — I,  9  .  E.  P.,  lo  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  grown  dark  since  baby- 
hood, and  is  very  curly;  skin  21,  45,  11,  23. 

2,  9  .  I.  P-,  8  years.     Eyes  brown;  hair  dark  brown  and  wavy; 

freckles  a  little;  skin  18,  42,  18,  22. 

3,  9  .  M.  P.,  5  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  wavy;  skin 

22,  40,  17,  21. 

4,  cT.  J.  P.,  3  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  medium  brown,  wavy;  skin 

24,  43,  16,  17. 

5,  cf.  3  weeks.    Skin  17,  36,  15,  32  (fig.  9). 

Pedigree  27.     S.  Family. 

(Includes  the  offspring  of  Fi  hybrids.) 

I  Gen. — There  were  ten  children  whose  father,  W.  S.,  was  an  Fi  mulatto  with 
skin  say  N  27  per  cent,  and  whose  mother  was  a  woman 
with  brown  eyes,  black,  straight  hair,  and  skin  8,  30,  19,  43. 

1,  The   first   son,  W.  S.   (with  typical   negro   hair;  skin  41,  30, 

14,   15),  married  into  another  family  (see  Pedigree  12,  I 
generation) . 
2  and  3,  cf .  J.  S.  and  R.  S.;  both  have  wavy  black  hair  and  brown 
skin. 

4.  The  fourth  son,  W.  S.,  hair  black  and  straight;  would    pass 

for  white ;  skin  say  N  5  per  cent ;  married  a  woman  whose 
father  was  brown-skinned  and  whose  mother  was  mulatto. 
Her  eyes  are  brown ;  hair  black  and  nearly  straight ;  would 
pass  for  a  brunet;  skin  5,  35,  14,  46.  They  have  six  chil- 
dren, all  of  whom  except  the  twins  had  light  hair  which 
became  darker  (II  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6). 

5.  9  .  C.  S.    Has  black,  straight  hair;  skin  dark-colored;  married. 

6.  A  daughter,  H.  S.  [J.]  (eyes  brown;  hair  dark  brown  and  curly; 

skin  fair,  7,37,  10,  46),  married  R.  J.,  a  light-colored  man, 
with  brown  eyes;  sldn  say  N  12  per  cent.  They  are  the 
parents  of  seven  children  (II  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12,  13). 

7.  Another  son,  F.  S.,  31  years  (eyes  blue;  hair  light  brown  and 

slightly  curly,  could  pass  for  white;  skin  14,  42,  17,  27), 
married  a  light-colored  woman ;  eyes  light  brown ;  hair  dark 
brown  and  wavy;  skin  18,  45,  15,  22.  They  have  three 
children  (II  14,  15,  16). 

8.  Another  daughter,  M.  S.  (eyes  light  brown;  hair  dark  brown  and 

very  curly;  skin  16,  37,  19,  28),  married  a  man,  H.  T.,  who 
is  a  brother  of  F.  S.'s  wife  (I  7).  He  has  light  brown  eyes; 
hair  dark  brown  and  curly;  skin  5,  35,  14,  46.  Their  son, 
H.  T,,  is  20  months  old;  eyes  gray;  hair  light  brown,  golden 
on  the  ends,  but  growing  darker;  sldn  5,  32,  17,  46. 

9.  The  last  son  is  A.  S.,  22  years;  eyes  gray,  with  little  brown  in 

them;  hair  wavy;  skin  27,  4,  15,  54. 
10,  9  .  M.  S.,  34  years.    Medium-colored. 
II  Gen. — I,  9.  M.  S.,  13  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown  and 
very  curly,  shows  negro  blood;  skin  9,  38,  20,  23. 

2,  9  .  V.  S.,  12  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  curly; 

skin  7,  35,  19,  39. 

3,  cf.  E.  S.,  9  years.     Eyes  brown;  hair  medium  brown,  slightly 

wavy;  skin  9,  41,  14,  36. 


BERMUDIAN   FAMILIES.  65 

4,  cT.  W.  S.,  6  years.    Eyes  dark  brown:  hair  light  brown,  wavy; 

could  easily  pass  for  white;  skin  4,  40,  16,  40. 
5  and  6,  cf.  A.  S.,  9  .  A.  S.,  t  4  months.    Twins;  said  to  have  had 

dark  brown  hair  and  fair  skin. 


7,  cf .  A.  J.,  iS  years.    Eyes  gray;  skin  say  N  7  per  cent. 

8,  9  .  V.  J.,  16  years.     Eyes  brown;  hair  black,  wavy;  skin  of  a 

yellow  medium  color. 

9,  9.  B.  J.,  13  years.    Eyes  blue  gray;  hair  light  brown,  very  curly. 

10,  cf .  A.  J.,  12  years.    Eyes  gray;  hair  black,  curly;  skin  say  N  20 

per  cent. 

11,  9.  A.J.,7years.    Eyes  black;  hair  black,  wavy;  skin  23,  40, 15,  22. 

12,  9.  P.  J.,   4  years.     Eyes  brown;  hair  light  brown,  wavy;  skin 

19,  35,  20,  26. 

13,  cf .  H.  J.,  2  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  brown,  curly;  skin  16,  44, 

14,  26. 


14,  9  .  C.  S.,  4  years.    Eyes  dark  blue;  when  bom  hair  was  nearly 

black,   became  lighter,   now  growing  darker,   a  medium 
brown,  lighter  about  the  face,  and  curly;  skin  14,  38,  20,  28. 

15,  c^.  C.  S.,  2%  years.     Eyes  dark  blue;  hair  like  II  14,  except 

wa\'y;  skin  18,  45,  15,  22. 

16,  9  .  G.  S.,  3  months.    Eyes  blue;  hair  medium  brown;  skin  5,  40, 

15.  40. 

Pedigree  28.     P.  Family. 

I  Gen. — H.  A.  P.,  38  years,  the  son  of  a  white  man,  I.  P.  (a  white  Bermudian, 
possibly  of  Spanish  origin,  who  had  dark  eyes  and  dark 
straight  hair),  and  of  a  fair-skinned  woman  (whose  father 
w'as  white  and  mother  colored)  who  has  a  broad,  typical 
nose;  eyes  dark  brown;  hair  once  black  and  kinky,  now 
white;  skin  10,  45,  16,  29.  H.  A.  P.  has  heavy  features; 
dark  eyes;  black  straight  hair;  skin  9,  36,  15,  40.  He  mar- 
ried a  woman,  A.  B.  [P.],  whose  father  was  a  white  man,  a 
soldier,  with  gray  eyes,  and  dark,  straight  hair,  and  whose 
mother  was  colored  and  had  also  a  blue-eyed  son.  A.  B.  P. 
is  33  years  old;  eyes  gray;  hair  dark  brown  and  wavy; 
skin  10,  47,  15,  28.  They  have  two  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  9.  C.  P.,  II  years.  Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  like  her  father's, 
but  slightly  wavy  on  the  ends;  skin  18,  46,  14,  22. 
2,  cf.  S.  P.,  9  years.  Eyes  h'ght  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 
straight:  could  pass  for  white,  except  for  shape  of  his 
mouth  and  lips;  skin  10,  i?:,  20,  32.* 

Pedigree  29.     P.  Family. 

I  Gen. — A.  F.,  53  years,  an  Englishman  \nth  clear  blue  eyes;  hair  medium 
brown  and  perfectly  straight;  mustache  sandy;  skin  5.  29, 
27,  39;  married  a  ncgress  with  typical  negro  features  and 
hair;  skin  45,  40,  7,  8.  Eight  children  were  bom  to  them. 
(See  fig.  12.) 

*  The  mother  says  it  is  difficult  to  get  these  children  educated.  She  can  not  send 
them  to  the  white  school,  and  at  the  colored  one  they  are  called  " half- whites "  and  teased 
by  the  other  children.    This  is  a  very  respectable  family. 


66        HEREDITY   OF    SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

II  Gen. — I,  cf .  D.  F.,  35  years.  Eyes  gray;  hair  dark  brown  and  curly, 
shows  his  negro  blood;  skin  5,  40,  23,  32.  He  married  a 
Hght-colored  woman,  the  daughter  of  a  light-colored  man 
with  skin  say  N  25  per  cent,  and  of  a  light-colored  woman 
whose  skin  is  say  N  15  per  cent.  She  has  dark  eyes,  very 
wavy  black  hair,  and  skin  16,  45,  16,  23.  They  have  six 
children  (III  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6). 

2,  cf.  G.  F.    Eyes  gray;  hair  straight;  absent  from  home. 

3,  9  .  L.  F.    Eyes  dark;  hair  wavy,  like  II  8. 

4,  cf.  C.  F.    Said  to  be  like  II  8. 

5,  9  .  A.  F.  [D.],  28  years.    Ej^es  dark  brown;  hair  black  and  wavy; 

skin  20,  40,  18,  22,  married  F.  D.,  whose  mother  was  an 
Englishwoman  and  whose  father  was  light-colored.  F.  D. 
has  good  features;  eyes  dark  gray;  hair  dark  brown  with  a 
very  slight  wave;  reddish  mustache;  pass  for  white;  skin  5, 
30,  12,  53.    They  had  six  children  (III  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12). 

6,  cf.  F.  F.,  32  years.    Eyes  gray-blue ;  typical  negro;  dark  brown, 

curly  hair;  skin  8,  44,  17,  31.  He  married  a  fair-skinned 
woman,  26  years  old,  whose  father  is  very  fair,  skin  say  N  5 
per  cent,  the  son  of  a  white  man  and  a  woman  with  skin  say 
N  13  per  cent.  She  has  good  features;  blue-gray  eyes  and 
dark  brown  hair,  curling  slightly  about  her  face.  She  freckles 
considerably;  skin  8,  41,  22,  29.  They  are  the  parents  of 
five  children  (III  13,  14,  15,  16,  17).     (See  fig.  12.) 

7,  cf.  A.  F.,  27  years.    Eyes  dark  gray;  typical  black,  curly  negro 

hair;  skin  16,  46,  19,  19.  Married  the  sister  of  the  wife  of 
II  6.  She  is  21  years  old;  eyes  greenish-brown;  hair  black 
and  wavy;  skin  36,  45,  11,  8.  They  have  two  daughters 
(III  18,  19).     (See  fig.  12.) 

8,  9  .  E.  F.,  18  years.     Eyes  dark;  hair  dark  brown,  v.^avy;  skin 

23,  39,  18,  20.     (See  fig.  12.) 


9,  9  .  A.  F.  [F.],  37  years.  Sister  to  wives  of  II  6,  7.  Eyes  dark 
brown;  typical  dark  brown  negro  hair;  skin  22,  43,  15,  20. 
She  married  her  second  cousin,  P.  F.,  who  resembles  III 
24.  They  are  the  parents  of  six  children  (III  20,  21,  22,  23, 
24,  25).  (See  fig.  12.) 
Ill  Gen. — I,  9.  H.  F.,  n  years.  Eyes  blue  in  babyhood,  now  gray;  hair 
very  dark  brown  when  bom,  now  a  little  lighter,  only 
slightly  wavy;  skin  18,  42,  19,  21. 

2,  cf .  C.  F.,  9  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  curly; 

skin  22,  45,  IS,  18. 

3,  cf .  R.  F.,  6  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown  when 

bom,  now  a  medium  brown  and  curly;  skin  24,  50,  12,  14. 

4,  cf.  G.  F.,  4  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  flaxen  when  bom, 

but  now  a  light  brown  and  almost  reddish  in  color,  curly; 
could  easily  pass  for  white;  skin  7,  36,  15,  42. 

5,  d^ .  A.  F.,  3  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  formerly  darker,  now  a 

light  brown  and  golden  on  the  curly  ends ;  skin  18,  42,  19,21. 

6,  cf .  W.   F.,   6  months.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown, 

straight;  skin  s,  4°,  23,  32. 

7,  9  .  A.  D.,  t.  6  years.     A  very  fair  baby,  which  grew  a  little 

darker,  like  III  11. 


BERMUDIAN   FAMILIES.  67 

8,  cT.  W.  D.,  lo  years.    Eyes  dark  gray;  hair  dark  brown,  straight; 

has  grown  lighter  in  skin  color  since  birth ;  skin  19,41,15,25. 

9,  cf .  H.  D.,  8  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  darker  when  he  was 

bom,  now  dark  brown  and  ver>'  curly;  skin  19,  41,  15,  25. 
xo,  9.  E.  D.,  6  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown  since 
birth,  slightly  wavy^;  skin  19,  38,  15,  28. 

11,  9  .  E.  D.,  4  years.    Good  features;  eyes  dark  gray;  hair  golden 

with  white  ends  in  babyhood,  now  a  light  brown  and  per- 
fectly straight;  would  pass  anyw'here  as  a  white  child;  skin 

3.  29.  17.  SI- 

12,  9  .  I.  D.,  2  years.    Nose  broad  and  flat;  eyes  dark  gray;  beauti- 

ful wavy  red  hair;  would  easily  pass  for  white;  fair  skin 
5,  35,  20,  40. 


13,  9  .  C.  F.,  10  years.     Fairly  good  features;  eyes  formerly  blue, 

now  gray;  hair  in  babyhood  golden,  now  a  yellow-brown 
and  wavy;  freckles  considerably;  would  pass  for  white; 
skin  8,  42,  21,  29. 

14,  cf .  S.  F.,  9  years. 

15,  cf.  J.  F.,  7  years.    Typical  broad  negro  nose;  eyes  light  green- 

brown;  hair  lighter  in  babyhood,  now  a  medimn  brown  and 
wavy;  might  pass  for  white;  skin  8,  37,  18,  37. 

16,  9.  D.   F.,   4  years.     Eyes  medium  brown;   hair  since   birth 

medium  brown  and  nearly  straight,  slight  curl  on  the  ends; 
skin  ID,  40,  18,  32. 

17,  cf .  A.  F.,  2  years.    Eyes  dark  gray;  hair  hght  brown  and  curly 

on  the  golden  ends;  skin  19,  40,  15,  26. 


18,  9  .  I.  F.,  6  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black,  in  ringlets;  skin 

24,  45,  14,  17, 

19,  9  .  I.  F.,  3  months.    Eyes  very  dark  gray;  hair  dark  brown  and 

straight,  will  probably  curl;  skin  11,  35,  20,  34. 


20,  cf .  H.  F.,  14  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black  in  babyhood; 

now  dark  brown  and  rather  wavy ;  his  skin,  which  freckles 
a  little,  is  16,  43,  16,  25. 

21,  9  .  M.  F.,  12  years.    Eyes  and  hair  are  typically  negro;  she  has 

the  darkest  skin  in  the  family;  skin  21,  38,  16,  25. 

22,  cf .  L.  F.,  II  years.    Eyes  dark  blue;  hair  darker  in  babyhood, 

now  reddish-brown  and  curly;  is  much  freckled  and  looks 
like  a  little  Irishman;  skin  15,  36,  18,  31. 

23,  cf .  E.  F.,  9  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  bro\N'n  and  very 

curly;  skin  17,  42,  15,  26. 

24,  cf .  A.  F.,  7  years.     Nose  broad  and  flat;  eyes  dark  blue-gray; 

hair  darker  in  babyhood,  now  a  medium  brown  and  very 
wavy;  skin  16,  40,  15,  29. 

25,  9  .  P.  F.,  5  years.    Eyes  greenish-brown;  hair  medium  brown,  but 

lighter  about  the  face,  and  is  very  curly;  skin  11,  45,  15,  29. 

Pedigree  30.     H.  Family. 

I  Gen. — I.  C.  H.,  38  years,  with  brown  eyes,  black  curly  hair  that  is  quite 
typically  negro,  but  with  skin  6,  29,  20,  45.  Married  a 
woman  34  years  old  whose  father  was  an  Irishman  with 


68        HEREDITY   OF    SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

gray  eyes  and  brown  hair,  and  whose  mother  was  an  Fi 
mulatto;  skin  32,  44,  11,  13.  She  has  brown  eyes  and  very 
wavy  auburn  hair.  She  would  pass  for  white,  for  her  skin 
is  decidedly  freckled,  and  is  5,  35,  15,  45.  They  have  four 
children. 
2.  C.  P.,  a  sister  of  wife  of  C.  H.,  is  25  years  old.  She  has  gray 
eyes;  curly  flaxen  hair  which  shows  her  negro  blood;  skin 
chalky  wliite  like  II  3,  say  N  5  per  cent. 
II  Gen. — I,  9  .  V.  H.,  13  years.  Hair  heavy  dark  brown  and  wavy;  typical 
brunet  complexion. 

2,  9  .  V.  H.,  9  years.    Hair  lighter  in  babyhood,  now  dark  brown 

and  curly;  skin  say  N  5. 

3,  cT.  F.  H.,  7  years.     Eyes  brown;  hair  straight  and  red;  sldn 

is   freckled  and   unusually  white,   almost  chalky,   5,   21, 
13,  61. 

4,  9.  T.  H.,  4months.    Hair  dark  brown,  straight;  skin  7,44,  17,  32. 

Pedigree  31.     B.  Family. 

I  Gen. — J.  T.  B.,  son  of  J.  T.  B.,  an  Englishman  (with  blue  eyes  and  light 
brown  hair),  and  a  negress  with  the  typical  negro  features, 
eyes  and  hair;  skin  41,  34,  10,  15.  He  is  a  fisherman,  with 
brown  eyes  and  black  straight  hair;  heavily  burned  by 
the  sun,  lightest  skin  of  arm  25,  32,  18,  25,  natural  color 
lighter,  say  N  18  per  cent.  He  married  a  woman  whose 
father  was  a  brown-skinned  man  with  one  white  grand- 
father, and  whose  mother  might  pass  for  white.  His  wife's 
hair  is  black  and  wavy;  skin  26,  44,  16,  14.  Eight  children 
were  bom  to  them. 
II  Gen. — I,  cf .  J.  T.  B.,  20  years.  Broad  nose;  eyes  light  brown;  hair  light 
brown  and  straight;  tanned  and  freckled;  skin  18,  37, 
18,27. 

2,  9  .  D.  B.  [R.],  17  years.    Hair  medium  brown,  curly;  skin  say 

N  20  per  cent. 

3,  9  .  t.  10  months.    Hair  like  its  mother's;  brown  skin. 

4,  <^ .  W.  B.,  14  years.     Eyes  black;  hair  black  and  straight;  his 

fair  skin  is  quite  freckled.    Except  for  broad  nose,  he  would 
pass  for  white. 

5,  cf.  R.  B.,  12  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  light  brown;  would 

pass  for  white  except  for  his  nose;  freckled  skin  16,  35, 
20,  29. 

6,  9  .  D.  B.,  8  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  straight, 

darkest  in  the  family;  skin  31,  43,  13,  13. 

7,  9  .  J.  B.,  7  years.    Hair  medium  brown,  but  golden  about  her 

face,  with  curly  ends;  skin  29,  43,  13,  15. 

8,  9.  E.  B.,   5  years.     Eyes  brown;  hair  medium  brown,  very 

sHghtly  wavy;  skin  19,  39,  14,  28. 

Pedigree  32. 
White  X  Black. 

I  Geii. — E.  P.,  an  English  soldier  with  blue  eyes  and  sandy  hair,  married  a 
negress  with  typical  negro  hair;  skin  41,  39,  10,  10.  They 
have  three  children. 


BERMUDIAN   FAMILIES.  69 

II  Gen. — I,  9  .  J.  P.,  lo  years.    Hair  formerly  flaxen,  now  light  brown  and 
curly;  skin  25,  47,  15,  13. 

2,  cf.  G.  P.,  8  years. 

3,  cf.  I.  P.,  6  years.    Hair  lighter  in  babyhood,  now  medium  brown 

and  curly;  skin  41,  40,  10,  g. 

Pedigree  33.     L.  Family. 

I  Gen. — Six  children  were  bom  of  J.  L.,  a  man  who  is  supposed  to  be  pure 

white.  He  has  brown  eyes  and  black  straight  hair.  His 
w4fe  was  the  daughter  of  a  white  man  and  a  light-colored 
woman.  She  has  blue  eyes,  dark-brown  wavy  hair,  and 
would  pass  for  white;  skin  13,  40,  18,  29. 

1.  The  first  son,  B.  L.,  has  curly  red  hair  and  compara- 
tively fair  skin,  say  N  5  per  cent.  He  married  a  light- 
colored  woman,  who  had  an  almost  white  father  and  dark 
mother.  She  has  the  typical  negro  hair,  and  skin  17,  40, 
18,  25.  They  have  seven  children  (II  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7). 
(See  fig.  13.) 

2.  The  second  son,  A.  L.,  has  red  curly  hair.  His  sister 
M.  L.  also  has  red  curly  hair,  and  his  brother  J.  L.  has  wavy 
brown  hair.  These  three  children  closely  resemble  white 
persons. 

3.  The  fourth  son,  W.  L.,  has  black  hair  which  waves  a 
little. 

4.  A  second  daughter,  H.  L.  [B.],  who  has  light  brown 
eyes,  browm,  straight  hair,  and  skin  15,  42,  18,  25,  married 
A.  B.  (see  Pedigree  25,  I  generation).  He  has  gray  eyes 
and  curly  black  hair;  skin  N  17  per  cent.  They  have  four 
children  (II  8,  9,  10,  11). 

II  Gen. — I,  cf .  G.  L.,  19  years.    Eyes  brown,  hair  brown,  wavy;  skin  22,  41, 

15,  22. 

2,  cf .  G.  L.,  16  years.     Eyes  brown;  hair  brown,  straight;  skin 

18,  40,  15,  27. 

3,  cf .  I.  L.,  13  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  wavy;  skin 

22,  34,  16,  28. 

4,  cf.  S.  L.,  10  years.    Eyes  brown;  typical  negro  hair;  skin  26.  40, 

13,  21. 

5,  cf .  G.  L.,  8  years.     Eyes  brown;  hair  brown,  and  somewhat 

curly;  skin  18,  38,  18,  26. 

6,  9  .  I.  L.,  4  3'ears.    Hair  light  browTi,  curly;  skin   18,  35.  17, 

30. 

7,  cf .  F.  L.,  I  year.    Hair  red  and  straight;  his  mother  said  all  of 

her  children  had  such  hair  in  infancy;  skin  8,  40,  20,  32 . 

8,  cf .  A.  B.,  1 8  years.     Eyes  gray-brown;  hair  light  browm  and 

curly. 

9,  cf .  A.  B.,  10  years.    Eyes  gray;  hair  brown  and  straight;  fairer 

than  his  mother. 

10,  9.  S.  B.,  7  years.     Eyes  brown;  hair  light  brown,  wavy;  skin 

very  fair. 

11,  cf .  R.  B.,  20  months.     Eyes  bro\\Ti;  hair  dark  brown,  curly; 

skin  13.  38,  16,  33. 


70        HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

Pedigree  34.     K.  Family. 

I  Gen. — J,  W.  K.,  a  Portuguese,  married  E.   G.,  a  rather  dark-colored 
woman,  who  has  the  typical  negro  hair,  and  skin  40,  40, 
12,  8.    Three  children  were  bom  to  them. 
11  Gen. — I,  9.  V.  K.,  7  years.     Her  straight,  light  brown  hair  is  growing 
darker;  skin  18,  47,  17,  18. 

2,  9  .  B.  K.,  5  years.    Hair  dark  brown,  curly;  skin  30,  45,  15,  10. 

3,  d^.  J.  A.  K.,  I  year.    Hair  dark  brown,  curly;  skin  22,  47,  17,  14. 

Pedigree  35.     B.  Family. 

C.  B.,  a  brown-skinned  man,  say  N  30,  married  B.  B.,  a  brown-skinned 
woman,  36,  37,  18,  9,  and  had  a  son,  J.  B.,  5  years,  skin  45,  34, 
14,  7 ;  and  a  daughter,  D.  B.,  3  years,  skin  36,  37,  14,  13. 

Pedigree  36.     C.  Family. 

I  Gen. — R.  C,  the  son  of  a  man  a  "little  lighter"  than  himself  and  his 

white  wife,  has  the  typical  negro  hair  and  skin  25,  33,  20,  22, 

He  married  a  brown-skinned  woman,  by  whom  he  had 

seven  children  (H  i,  2). 

II  Gen. — I,  cf.  J.  C,  a  doctor,  who  attended  a  medical  school  in  Tennessee 

and  is  the  authority  for  this  family  pedigree,  has  rather 

typical  negro  hair,  but  a  fair  skin  (14,  32,  20,  34).    His  wife 

is  the  daughter  of  a  white  man  and  a  woman  whose  skin 

is  say  N  30  per  cent.     She  has  black,  straight  hair,  and 

skin  16,  34,  21,  29.    They  have  four  children  (III  1,2,3,  4)- 

2 ,  cT .  H .  C.    Has  skin  say  N  2 o  per  cent ;  and  his  wife,  skin  say  N  45 

per  cent.  They  have  seven  children  (III  5,  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11). 

There  are  in  addition  four  children  about  the  color  of 

the  father  and  one  about  N  20  per  cent. 

Ill  Gen. — I,  9  .  E,  C,  12  years.    Hair  black,  somewhat  wavy;  skin  30,  38, 

17,  15- 

2,  cf .  B.  C,  10  years.    Hair  black,  curly;  skin  32,  43,  13,  12. 

3,  cT.  E.  C,  7  jxars.    Eyes  greenish-brown;  hair  formerly  reddish, 

now  a  medium  brown,  and  curly;  skin  4,  22,  16,  58. 
A,  &  •  IM.  C,  5  years.    Soft  medium  brown  curls  which  are  growing 
darker;  skin  4,  22,  16,  58. 

5,  d^.  Between  father  and  mother  in  skin  color. 

6,  9  .  Resembles  her  mother  in  skin  color. 

7,  cf .  C.  C.    Kinky  hair;  typical  African;  skin  68,  21,  5,  6. 

8,  9  .  E.G.    Hair  dark  brown  and  very  wavy;  lightest  member  of 

the  family;  skin  33,  46,  14,  7. 
9-1 1 .    Three  other  children  resemble  their  father  in  skin  color. 

A  sister  of  the  wife  in  the  I  Generation,  a  brown-skinned 
woman,  married  a  white  man.  Their  colored  daughter 
married  a  white  man  and  their  eight  children  would  all 
pass  for  white.    One  of  the  boys  has  blue  eyes. 

Pedigree  37.    H.  Family. 

I  Gen. — A.  H.,  a  typical  English  soldier,  40  years  old,  with  blue  eyes  and 
light  brown  hair,  skin  5,  30,  23,  42,  married  a  typical  brown- 
skinned  woman  (skin  N  40) ,  and  had  by  her  three  children. 


JAMAICAN   FAMILIES.  71 

II  Gen. — I,  cf .  B.  H.,  5  years.    Hair  medium  brown,  wavy;  skin  28,  36, 14,  22. 

2,  9  .  A.  H.,  3  years.    Frizzy  brown  hair;  skin  16,  43,  15,  26. 

3,  o^.  W.  H.,  7  months.    Soft,  dark  brown,  straight  hair;  skin  10, 

50.  17.  23. 

Pedigree  38.     T.  Family. 

I  Gen. — C.  T.,  with  skin  say  N  20  per  cent,  the  son  of  T.  T.  (a  white  man) 
and  a  colored  woman,  whose  skin  is  45,  32,  10,  13 ;  married 
a  medium-colored  woman  whose  skin  is  26,  43,  17,  14;  has 
a  son  and  daughter. 
11  Gen. — I,  9.  E.  T.,  3  years.  Hair  reddish-brown  and  very  curly;  skin 
30,  37,  13,  20. 
2,  d^.  H.  T.,  16  months.  Hair  reddish-golden  and  growing  darker; 
skin  6,  36,  12,  46. 

II.  JAMAICAN  FAMILIES. 
(Abridged  field  notes  of  Florence  H.  Danielson,  Field  Worker,  Eugenics  Record  Office.) 

Pedigree  i.     H.  Family. 

I  Gen. — T.  H.,  a  medium-colored  man,  son  of  a  man  of  colored  origin  whose 
skin  was  about  N  17  and  a  woman  whose  skin  was  say 
N  31.  He  has  skin  30,  34,  19,  17.  He  has  been  married 
twice.  By  his  first  wife,  a  very  black  woman,  he  had  one 
child  (II  i).  The  second  wife,  a  lighter  woman,  whose 
father's  skin  was  say  N  30,  and  whose  mother's  skin  was 
say  N  41,  has  hair  which  has  lost  its  "kink,"  and  skin 
41,  42,  6,  II.  She  bore  him  three  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  9  .  V.  H.,  13  years.    Kinky  hair;  skin  40,  40,  10,  10. 

2,  cf.  t.  13  months.    Dark,  like  II  i. 

3,  cf.  E.  H.,  5  years.     Hair  curly  but  not  kinky;  lighter  when 

younger;  skin  35,  35,  16,  14. 

4,  9.  D.  H.,  2  years.    Hair  curly  but  not  kinky;  skin  35,  36,  16,  13. 

Pedigree  2.    T.  Family. 

I  Gen. — A.  T.,  son  of  a  "sambo"  man  and  a  "quadroon,"  has  curly  black 
hair,  and  skin  26,  40,  15,  19.  He  married  an  Fi  mulatto,  the 
daughter  of  an  Englishman  and  a  black  woman.  She  has 
rather  coarse,  dark  brown  hair  that  curls  very  slightly; 
skin  36,  39,  4,  II.  They  have  two  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  cf .  15/^  years.    Said  to  be  like  II  2. 

2,  9  .  R.  T.,  14  years.    Hair  rather  long,  dark  brown,  and  wavy; 
skin  30,  44,  12,  14. 

Pedigree  3.     D.  Family, 

I  Gen. — ^W.  I.  D.,  son  of  a  pure  white  Jew  and  a  verj'-  black  African  woman, 
has  black,  slightly  curly  hair;  skin  33,  42,  13,  12.  By  a 
very  dark  brown  woman,  skin  58,  29,  6,  7,  he  had.  before 
his  marriage,  one  illegitimate  daughter  (II  i).  His  own 
wife  (who  had  a  white  grandfather  and  a  father  fairer  than 
she,  with  finer,  straighter  hair,  and  a  mother  who  was 
darker  than  she)  has  long,  wavy  hair,  and  skin  35,41,13,11. 
She  is  the  mother  of  six  children. 


72        HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

II  Gen. — I,  9.  E.  D.,  the  illegitimate  daughter.     Typical  negro  hair;  skin 

36,  46,  6,  12. 

2,  9  .  M.  D.,  15  years.    Hair  dark  brown,  wavy;  skin  40,  42,  10,  8. 

3,  9  .  E.  D.,  12  years.    Hair  dark  brown,  wavy;  skin  33,  47,  11,  9. 

4,  cf .  G.  D.,  95^  years.     Hair  dark  brown,  very  curly,  but  not 

kinky;  skin  35,  42,  12,  11. 

5,  cf .  V.  D.,  7  years.     Hair  black  and  decidedly  kinky;  skin  44, 

37.  9,  lo- 

6,  9  .  M.  D.,  5  years.    Hair  rather  light  brown,  curly;  skin  34,  46, 

12,  8. 

7,  cf .  E.  D.,  10  months.    Hair  medium  brov/n,  curly;  skin  33,  45, 

13.  9- 

Pedigree  4.     B.  Family. 

I  Gen. — R.  B.,  who  had  both  grandfathers  white,  has  brown  eyes,  black, 
almost  straight  hair,  and  skin  15,  41,  20,  24.  He  married 
a  woman  who  had  both  grandfathers  white  and  both 
grandmothers  black.  She  has  hazel  or  grayish  eyes;  very 
curly,  dark  brown  hair;  and  skin  20,  45,  16,  19.  They 
have  seven  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  9  .  Eyes  hazel;  hair  dark  brown  and  somewhat  curly;  skin  11, 
51,  20,  18.  Married  R.  E.,  the  son  of  a  quadroon  man  and 
a  black  woman.  He  has  brown  eyes;  nearly  typical  negro 
hair;  and  skin  25,  37,  20,  18.  Four  children  were  bom  to 
them  (III  I,  2,  3,  4).    (See  Pedigree  7,  II  generation  i.) 

2,  d^.  H.  B.,  30  years.    Skin  say  N  27. 

3,  9  .  M.  B.,  26  years.    Darkest  of  the  girls;  skin  say  N  23. 

4,  cf .  R.  B.,  24  years.    Eyes  Hght  brown  or  hazel;  hair  dark  brown 

and  curly;  skin  17,  44,  15,  24. 

5,  9  .  B.  B.,  22  years.    Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

very  ctirly;  skin  20,  45,  18,  17. 

6,  9.  M.  B.,  20  years.    Eyes  gray;  hair  dark  brown,  very  curly; 

fairest  in  the  family;  skin  10,  49,  16,  25. 

7,  cf.  L.  B.,  17  years.     Eyes  light  brown;  almost  typical  negro 

hair;  darkest  in  the  family;  skin  27,  41,  16,  16. 
Ill  Gen. — I,  9.  G.  E.,  10  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  decided  negroid  dark 
brown,  curly  hair;  skin  40,  40,  10,  10. 

2,  cf .  C.  E.,  8  years.     Eyes  light  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

curly;  skin  35,  36,  15,  14.  _ 

3,  9  .  L.  E.,  4^  years.     Eyes  light  brown  or  hazel;  hair  light 

brown,  wavy;  skin  15,  51,  18,  16. 

4,  9  .  L.  E.,  2  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  light  brown,  wavy; 

skin  say  N  15. 

Pedigree  5.    W.  Family. 

I  Gen. — A  medium-colored  woman,  the  daughter  of  a  Jew  and  a  black  or 
"sambo"  woman,  had  children  by  three  different  men. 
She  has  very  ciu"ly  black  hair,  and  skin  30,  40,  15,  15.  By 
a  "sambo"  man,  skin  say  N  40,  she  had  one  son  with 
typical  curly  hair,  and  skin  35,  42,  12,  11.  ByanFi  mulatto 
she  had  a  daughter  (Hi).  By  another  man  who  was  very 
fair,  being  the  son  of  a  white  man  and  a  "mustafino"  or 
very  hght  woman,  she  had  another  daughter  (II  2). 


JAMAICAN   FAMILIES.  73 

II  Gen. — I,  9 .  E.  H.  Eyes  light  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  very  curly;  skin 
30,  40,  16,  14,  married  a  man  with  white  blood  but  with 
skin  darker  than  N  40.  They  have  one  daughter  who  has 
brown  eyes;  dark  brown  wavy  hair;  skin  40,  40,  10,  10. 

2,  9  .  Hair  dark  brown  and  quite  straight,  skin  30,  40,  15,  15;  mar- 
ried E.  Y.,  a  dark-skinned  man,  say  N  40,  by  whom  she  had 
four  children  (III  1,2,3,4).  By  a  Jew  she  had  a  son  with 
yellow-brown  eyes;  black,  wavy  hair;  skin  14,  25,  23,  38. 

E.  Y.,  the  lawful  husband  of  this  woman,  had  a  first 
cousin  on  the  maternal  side,  a  woman  with  dark  brown, 
curly  hair;  skin  16,  48,  20,  16.  She  married  a  negro.  —  C, 
skin  say  N  55,  by  whom  she  had  five  children  (III  5,  6, 

7.8,9)- 
III  Gen.— I,  9  .  L.  Y.,  18  years.    Skin  say  N  20. 

2,  9  .  V.  Y.,  16  years.    Nearly  typically  negro  dark  brown,  very 

curly  hair;  skin  30,  36,  16,  18. 

3,  cf.  B.  Y.,  15  years.     Eyes  brown;  hair  dark  bro\^^l,  straight; 

skin  20,  44,  17,  ig. 

4,  9  .  H.  Y.,  4  years.    Hair  dark  brown,  wavy;  skin  34,  41,  14,  n. 


5,  9  .  M.  C,  12  years.    Said  to  have  curly  hair;  skin  say  N  30. 

6,  cf .  E.  C,  8  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  curly;  skin  15,  47,  22,  16. 

7,  9  .  L.  C,  6  years.    Hair  crurly;  skin  31,  44,  14,  11. 

8,  9  .  L.  C,  3  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  curly;  skin  15,  50,  18,    17. 

9,  9  .  M.  C,  I  year.    Eyes  brown;  hair  curly;  skin  18,  50,  17,  15. 


Pedigree  6. 


This  pedigree  is  fragmentary. 


Pedigree  7.     E.  Family. 

I  Gen. — A.  E.,  a  man  who  would  almost  pass  for  white,  being  the  son  of  a 
Jew  and  a  fair-colored  woman,  married  a  typical  negress 
with  pure  black  typical  eyes  and  hair;  skin  46,  39,  S,  7. 
They  have  fourteen  children,  six  of  whom  are  described. 
(His  descendants  by  a  "sambo"  woman  are  given  in  Pedi- 
gree 8,  I  Generation.) 
II  Gen. — I,  cf .  R.  E.  Eyes  brown;  nearly  typical  negro  hair;  skin  25,  37, 
20,  18.  Married  —  B.  (see  Pedigree  4,  I  Generation,  for 
the  description  of  the  wife  and  the  children) . 

2,  9.  F.  E.  [A.].     Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  black,  wa\y;  skin 

35.  35.  IS.  15-  Married  —  A.,  the  son  of  a  quadroon  and  a 
woman  a  little  darker  than  II  2.  He  has  black,  straight 
hair;  sldn  say  N  40.    They  have  three  cliildren  (III  i,  2,  3). 

3,  9  .  F.  E.    Hair  dark  brown,  quite  wavy;  skin  34,  40,  15,  11. 

4,  cf .  H.  E.     Skin  say  N  28,  married  a  medium-colored  woman 

with  light  brown  eyes;  brown,  curly  hair;  not  quite  the 
t3-pically  negro  kind;  skin  28,  42,  17,  13.  They  have  six 
children  (III  4,  5.  6,  7.  8,  9)- 

5,  cf .  A.  E.    Unwilling  to  have  color  recorded;  sldn  probably  like 

II  I,  say  N  25.  He  married  —  M.,  the  daughter  of  a  man 
who  was  half  Jew  and  of  a  colored  woman.  She  has  skin 
10,  51,  17,  22.    They  have  three  children  (III  10,  11,  12). 


74       HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

6,  9  .  M.  E.  [M.].    Nearly  typical  negro  hair;  skin  32,  43,  11,  14. 

Married  —  M.,  the  brother  of  the  wife  of  II  5.    He  has  skin 

say  N  40.     They  have  five  children  (III  13,  14,  15,  16,  17). 

Ill  Gen. — I,  9  .  D,  A.,  6  years.    Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

curly;  skin  25,  42,  16,  17. 

2,  9  .  L.  A.,  3  years.     Eyes  brown;  hair  light  brown,  fluffy;  skin 

20,  45,  16,  19. 

3,  cf .  C.  A.,  3  months.    Hair  dark  brown,  soft,  and  straight;  skin 

32,  38,  15,  15. 


4,  cf .  A.  E.    Skin  say  N  34. 

5,  9  .  G.  E.,  16  years.     Nearly  typical  negro  features  and  curly 

hair;  eyes  dark  brown;  skin  24,  45,  17,  14. 

6,  cf.  H.  E.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  curly;  skin  N  35. 

7,  cf .  A.    E.,    12    years.     Eyes   brown-green;   hair  dark  brown, 

straight;  skin  35,  42,  12,  11. 

8,  9.1.  E.,  8  years.    Eyes  light  brown;  hair  light  brown,  fine,  and 

wavy;  skin  34,  40,  15,  11. 

9,  9.  E.  E.,  6  years.     Eyes  light  brown;  hair  Hght  brown,  very 

curly;  skin  28,  41,  17,  14. 


10,  cf^.  H.  E.,  23  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black,  very  wavy; 

skin  20,  45,  15,  20. 

11,  9.  A.  E.,  21  years.    Eyes  hazel;  hair  "mouse-colored,"  fluffy; 

skin  14,  48,  18,  20. 

12,  9.  E.  E.,  15  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  curly; 

skin  12,  56,  19,  13. 


13,  9.  G.  M.,  16  years.     Eyes  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  slightly 

wavy;  skin  28,  47,  12,  13. 

14,  cf .  W.  M.,  14  years.    Eyes  hazel;  hair  short  and  typically  curly; 

skin  34,  40,  14,  12. 

15,  cf.  E.  M.,ii  years.    Eyes  brov/n ;  hair  black  and  nearly  straight ; 

clearly  the  darkest  one  of  the  family;  skin  40,  40,  10,  lo. 

16,  9  .  G.  M.,  9  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  straight;  skin 

25.  35.  17.  23. 

17,  cf .  J.  M. ,  7  years.    Eyes  brown ;  hair  dark  brown,  nearly  straight ; 

skin  12,  45,  21,  22. 

Pedigree  8.     A.  Family. 

I  Gen. A.,  a  man  with  gray  eyes  and  brown  hair,  who  is  said  to  be  pure 

white,  married  the  daughter  of  A.  E.  (see  Pedigree  7, 
I  Generation)  and  a  "sambo"  wom.an.  She  has  dark 
brown  hair  which  waves  a  little  about  her  face;  skin  25,  40, 
16,  19.  They  have  six  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  9  .  E.  A.,  22  years.  Looks  like  a  Spanish  girl  with  her  dark 
brown  eyes;  dark  brown,  slightly  wavy  hair;  skin  15,  34, 
23,  28. 

2,  9  .  G.  A.,  18  years.    Looks  like  an  English  girl  with  her  dark 

blue  eyes;  light  brown,  straight  hair;  skin  5,  29,  26,  40. 

3,  9  .  S.  A.,  IS  years.    Hair  medium  brown,  straight;  skin  like  II  5. 

4,  cf .  W.  A.,  14  years.    Good  featiires;  eyes  light  brown;  hair  light 

brown,  straight;  could  pass  for  white;  skin  5,  36,  23,  36. 


JAMAICAN    FAMILIES.  75 

5,  cf.  C.  A.,  II  years.    Good  features;  eyes  light  brown  or  hazel; 

hair  light  brown,  straight;  could  pass  for  white;  skin  14,  33, 
22,  31. 

6,  9  .  M.  A.,   2  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

slightly  wavy;  shows  her  colored  blood  but  Uttle;  skin  14, 
38   20,  28. 

Pedigree  9.     M.  Family. 

I  Geyi. — Five  children  were  bom  of  a  man  with  skin  say  N  12  (being  the 
son  of  a  Scotchman  and  a  Madagascar  woman)  and  of  a 
colored  woman  with  skin  say  N  13. 

1.  The  first  son,  R.  B.,  with  skin  15,  41,  20,  24,  married  a 
woman  with  skin  20,  45, 16, 19  (sec  Pedigree  4, 1  Generation). 

2.  Another  son,  J.  B.,  with  brown  eyes;  black  curly  hair; 
skin  II,  48,  20,  21;  married  a  medium-colored  woman, 
whose  father  was  "fair"  and  whose  mother  was  black. 
She  has  straight,  Indian  hair,  and  skin  say  N  33.  They 
have  two  sons  (II  1,2). 

3.  A  daughter,  A.  B.  [M.],  with  brown  eyes;  wavy, 
black  hair;  skin  13,  41,  21,  25;  married  L.  AL,  a  sergeant, 
the  son  of  a  light-colored  man  with  blue  eyes  and  light 
hair  and  of  a  woman  whose  father  was  "sambo "  and  whose 
mother  was  black.  He  has  gray  eyes;  dark  brown,  slightly 
curly  hair;  skin  22,  35,  21,  22.    They  have  eleven  children 

(H  3-13)- 

4.  Another  daughter,  E.  B.  [A.],  with  brown  eyes; 
medium  brown,  straight  hair;  shows  her  colored  blood  a 
little;  skin  18,  36,  19,  27.  Married  a  white  man,  J.  A.,  who 
has  dark  brown  eyes  and  light  brown  hair.  They  have  two 
children  (II  14,  15). 

5.  A  third  son,  T.  B.,  whose  skin  is  say  N  18,  married  a 
woman  whose  blue-eyed  father  was  very  fair,  being  the  son 
of  a  white  man  and  a  "quadroon,"  and  whose  mother  was 
"sambo."  She  has  brown  eyes;  somewhat  curly,  black  hair; 
skin  20,  35,  23,  22.    They  have  five  children  (II  16-20). 

II  Gen. — I,  d^.  W.  B.  Eyes  brown;  hair  black  and  almost  straight;  skin  17, 
45,  20,  18;  married  the  daughter  of  a  pure  black  man  and 
a  mulatto.  She  has  brown  eyes;  typical  negro  hair;  skin 
33,  44,  14,  9;  and  is  the  mother  of  two  daughters  (III  i,  2). 
(See  fig.  II.) 

2,  d^.  J.  B.    Hair  curly;  skin  like  II  i. 

3,  9  .  L.  M.,  19  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  wavy;  skin 

21,  50,  IS,  14. 

4,  9  .  L.  M.,  18  years.    Assistant  teacher  in  a  school;  eyes  brown; 

almost  typical  negro  hair  which  is  curlier  than  that  of 
cither  parent;  skin  17,  48,  17,  18. 

5,  9.  J.  M.,  16  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  very  curly;  fairest  one 

in  her  family;  freckled  skin  8,  41,  23,  28. 

6,  cf .  L.  M.,  14  years.    Eyes  dark  bro\\Ti;  hair  dark  browTii,  prac- 

tically straight;  skin  15,  45,  21,  19. 

7,  9.  M.  Al.,  13  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  almost  typical  dark 

brown  negro  hair;  darkest  one  in  her  family;  skin  25,  49, 

13.  13- 


76        HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WTIITE   CROSSES. 

8,  d^.  S.  M.,  9  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  medium  brown,  somewhat 

wavy;  skin  15,  42,  20,  23. 

9,  cf.  E.  M.,  8  years.     Eyes  brown;  hair  brown,  wavy;  skin  say 

N  18. 

10,  cf.  V.  M.,  7  years.    Twin  to  II  11,  and  so  hke  him  in  every  way 

that  their  family  could  scarcely  distinguish  them  in  the 
dusk.  Eyes  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  wavy;  skin  20,  48, 
16,  16. 

11,  cT.  E.  M.,  7  years.    Twin  to  II  10;  skin  20,  48,  15,  17. 

12,  cf.  J.  M.,  4  years.     Eyes  brown;  hair  light  brown,  curly;  skin 

18,  45,  15,  22. 

13,  cf .  E.  M.,  3  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  light  brown,  fluffy;  skin 

IS,  47.  20,  18.  _ 
A  pair  of  twins  and  a  boy  younger  than  II  13  have  died. 

14,  cf .  —  A.    Hair  Hght  brown,  straight;  skin  like  II  15. 

15,  9  .  D.  A.  [W.].    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown,  straight, 

but  waves  a  bit  about  her  face;  white  and  freckled  skin 
7,  29,  20,  44.  She  married  a  man  with  curly  hair  and  skin 
say  N  25,  by  whom  she  had  two  daughters  (III  3,  4). 

16,  d^.  F.  B.,  12  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  light  brown,  slightly 

wavy;  skin  9,  45,  23,  23. 

17,  9.  V.  B.,  9  years.     Eyes  light  brown;  hair  Hght  brown,  very 

wa\'y;  skin  15,  40,  21,  24. 

18,  cT.  C.  B.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown,  straight;  skin 

9.  45,  23,  23. 

19,  9  .  H.  B.,  4  years.    Eyes  Hght  brown;  hair  Hght  yellow,  wavy; 
A  skin  17,  36,  21,  26. 

20,  9.  T.  B.,   2  years.     Eyes  dark  blue;  hair  light  brown,   very 

"fuzzy;"  skin  11,  39,  25,  25. 
Ill  Gen. — I,  9  .  R.  B.,  3  years.     Eyes  brown;  hair  medium  brown,  curly; 
skin  15,  47,  18,  20. 
2,  9.  A.  B.,  I  year.     Eyes  brown;  hair  Hght  brown,  curly;  skin 
II,  47,  20,  22. 


3,  9.  R.  W.,  10  years.     Eyes  brown;  beautiful  curly  red-brown 

hair;  fair,  freckled  skin  8,  37,  23,  32. 

4,  9.  M.  W.,  9  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  bright  red,  curly;  fair, 

freckled  skin  6,  36,  20,  38. 

Pedigree  10.     T.  Family. 

I  Gen. — An  Englishman  had,  by  a  colored  woman,  a  daughter,  —  T.,  who 
has  brown  eyes;  black,  sHghtly  wavy  hair;  skin  18,  40,  20, 
22.  The  father  of  her  children  is  a  "Yankee,"  with  gray 
or  blue  eyes  and  dark  brown  hair.  She  has  three  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  9  .  J.  T.,  4  years.  Eyes  gray;  hair  Hght  brown,  straight,  but 
waving  about  her  face;  skin  15,  36,  24,  25. 

2,  9  .  C.  T.,  2>^  years.    Eyes  blue;  hair  flaxen,  straight;  sldn  7,32, 

25.  36. 

3,  d^.  A.  T.,  I  year.    Eyes  brown;  hair  reddish-golden,  waving  a 

Httle;  slan  6,  29,  28,  37. 

The  mother  says  all  her  cliildren  were  born  with  black  hair. 


JAMAICAN   FAMILIES.  77 

Pedigree  ii.     B.  Family. 

I  Gen. B.,  the  son  of  a  man  said  to  be  pure  white  and  of  a  woman  with 

probably  a  little  colored  blood,  has  blue  eyes  and  a  fair 
skin,  so  that  he  would  pass  for  white.  He  married  a  woman 
with  brown  eyes;  slightly  wavy,  brown  hair;  skin  27,  40, 
17,  16,  by  whom  he  had  three  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  9  .  E.  B.  Eyes  dark  blue;  hair  dark  brown,  wavy;  fair  freckled 
skin  II,  38,  23,  28.  She  has  a  little  girl  with  light  blue 
eyes,  flaxen  curls,  very  white  skin.  The  mother  and  the 
grandmother  asserted  that  the  child's  father  was  like  the 
grandmother  in  color,  i.e.,  N  27. 

2,  9  .  M.  B.     Eyes  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  wavy;  shows  more 

color  than  II  i;  skin  15,  35,  20,  30. 

3,  cf'.  — B.    Darker  than  his  sisters. 

Pedigree  12.     S.  Family. 

White  (English)  X  Negro. 

I  Gen. — A  pure  white  Englishman  had,  by  a  negress,  Mrs.  S.  (who  has  the 
typical  negro  features  and  hair;  skin  60,  29,  6,  5),  three 
children. 
II  Gen. — I,  9  .  E.  S.,  24  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  black,  wav>';  skin  28,  39, 
IS,  18. 

2,  9  .  F.  S.,  22  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  black,  curly;  skin  25,  40, 

19,  16. 

3,  9  .  M.  S.,  18  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  black,  curly;  skin  25,  40, 

19,  16. 

Pedigree  13.     M.  Family. 

I  Gen. — I.  A.  M.  is  the  son  of  a  pure-blooded  Irishman,  —  M.,  and  of  a 
dark-colored  woman  with  skin  52,  32,  8,  8.  A.  M.,  whose 
skin  is  said  to  be  N  12,  married  a  very  Hght-colored  woman, 
whose  father  was  a  Chinaman  and  whose  mother  was  the 
daughter  of  a  Jew  and  a  negress.  She  shows  no  marked 
Chinese  characteristics,  although  some  of  her  children  do. 
She  has  an  oval  face;  straight  nose;  light  brown  eyes,  some- 
what deeply  set,  but  not  almond-shaped;  nearly  black, 
somewhat  curly  hair;  skin  12,  41,  20,  27.  They  have  seven 
children  (II  1-7). 

2.  Her  sister,  who  claims  the  same  parentage,  has  dark 
brown  eyes;  dark  brown,  curly  hair;  skin  31,  39,  17,  13. 
Resembles  her  sister,  but  shows  no  Chinese  characteristics. 
A  brown-skinned  man  is  claimed  as  the  father  of  her  two 
children  (II  8,  9). 
II  Gen.—i,  &.  T.  M.    No  data. 

2,  9  .  M.  M.,  20  years.    Her  round  face  and  wide  mouth  show  her 

Chinese  blood,  otherwise  she  is  a  typical  brown-skinned 
girl.  Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  very  curly;  the  darkest  of  the 
children;  skin  25,  38,  16,  21. 

3,  9  .  C.  M.,  17  years.    A  decidedly  Chinese-looking  girl,  except 

for  her  very  curly  hair.  Her  face  is  round;  mouth  wide; 
eyes  gray-green  and  almost  almond-shaped;  hair  light 
brown;  comparatively  Hght  skin  15,  43,  20,  22. 


78       HEREDITY   OF    SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO- WHITE   CROSSES. 

4,  cf.  A.  M.,   i^yi  years.     Features  in  general  negroid,  but  his 

nose  is  unusually  broad  and  flat;  eyes  dark  brown;  hair 
light  brown,  curly;  skin  lo,  40,  18,  32. 

5,  9  .  R.  M.,  II  years.    No  marked  Chinese  characteristics;  eyes 

dark  brown ;  typical  dark  brown  curly  hair;  skin  20,37,20,23. 

6,  9  .  I.  M.,  5  years.    No  marked  Chinese  characteristics,  except 

rather  small  eyes  which  are  gray-brown;  hair  light  brown, 
curly;  skin  16,  36,  20,  28. 

7,  9.  M.  M.,  9  months.     No  Chinese  characteristics;  eyes  gray- 

brown;  hair  light  yellow  ttiming  to  brown  on  the  ends, 
wavy;  skin  8,  38,  25,  29. 

8,  9.  D.  W.,  17  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  very  curly;  skin 

32,  35,  17.  16. 

9,  cT.  N.  W.,   15  years.     Negroid  features;  eyes  brown;  nearly 

typical  negro  hair;  skin  27,  40,  18,  15. 

Pedigree  14.     H.  Family. 

I  Gen. H.,  an  Englishman  with  gray  eyes  and  light  brown  hair,  had 

three,  possibly  five,  children,  by  a  dark-colored  woman,  all 
of  whose  people,  so  far  as  she  knows,  were  colored.  She 
has  dark  brown  eyes  and  the  typical  curly  hair;  skin  47, 
37,  12,  4.  She  is  the  mother  of  five  children. 
II  Gen. — 1-2,  cf ,  who  are  stated  to  be  the  children  of  —  H.,  have  very 
kinky  hair  and  are  darker  than  their  sisters;  skin  like  their 
mother's.     (Field  worker  doubts  the  paternity.) 

3,  9  .  R.  H.,  18  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  curly; 

skin  23,  41,  20,  16. 

4,  9  .  G.  H.,  15  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  curly; 

skin  33,  38,  16,  13. 

5,  9  .  C.  H.,  10  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  wa\^; 

skin  31,  40,  15,  14. 

Pedigree  15.     C.  Family. 

I  Gen. — I.  C,  with  skin  say  N  8,  son  of  a  Jewish  man  and  a  brown-skimied 
woman,  married  a  woman  with  gray  eyes;  quite  wavy, 
dark  brown  hair;  skin  19,  36,  21,  24.  She  is  the  daughter 
of  a  man  with  skin  say  N  10,  being  the  son  of  an  Irishman 
and  a  dark-colored  woman,  and  of  a  woman  with  gray  eyes, 
wavy  hair,  skin  say  N  20,  being  the  daughter  of  a  Scotch- 
man and  a  dark-colored  woman.  They  have  four  boys. 
II  Gen. — I,  cT.  L.  C,  13  years.  Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  rather 
coarse  and  curly;  skin  15,  42,  20,  23. 

2,  cf .  C.  C,  12  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  almost 

straight;  skin  15,  44,  20,  21. 

3,  cf .  L.  C,  8  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  light  yellow,  growing 

darker  on  the  ends,  straight;  skin  5,  34,  25,  36. 

4,  d^.  D.  C,  4^  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  brown,  nearly 

straight;  skin  8,  37,  21,  34. 

Pedigree  16.     S.  Family. 

I  Gen. — Three  daughters  of  a  colored  father,  all  of  whose  ancestors,  so  far 
as  known,  were  colored,  and  of  a  medium-colored  woman 
whose  father  may  have  been  white. 


JAMAICAN   FAMILIES.  79 

1.  The  first  daughter  has  skin  28,  42,  17,  13.  (See  Pedi- 
gree 7,  II  generation,  4,  for  her  children.) 

2.  The  second  daughter,  Mrs.  S.,  who  has  medium 
brown  eyes,  nearly  typical  curly  hair,  skin  36,  40,  11,  13; 
married  —  S.,  who  has  gray  eyes,  dark  brown,  straight 
hair,  skin  3,  ^s,  21,  43.  His  father  had  gray  eyes,  light 
brown  hair;  would  pass  for  white.  They  have  two  sons 
(II  I,  2). 

3.  The  third  daughter,  who  has  hazel  eyes,  slightly  wavy 
hair,  skin  15,  47,  18,  20;  married  W.  B.,  whose  father  was 
very  fair,  being  part  Irish,  perhaps,  and  whose  mother  was 
fair.  He  has  hght  brown  eyes,  red  hair,  skin  o,  32,  20,  48. 
They  have  eight  children  (II  3-10). 

II  Gen. — I,  cf .  E.  S.,  9  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  Hght  brown,  curly; 
skin  19,  47,  16,  18. 

2 ,  d^ .  E.  S.    Eyes  medium  brown ;  hair  Hght  brown,  nearly  straight ; 

skin  12,  40,  20,  18. 

3,  9  .  I.  B.,  26  years.    Rather  negroid  features;  eyes  Hght  brown; 

hair  Hght  brown,  curly;  fair,  freckled  skin,  9,  45,  21,  25. 

4,  cf .  W.  B.    Resembled  II  7  in  skin. 

5,  9  .  Not  seen. 

6,  cf .  U.  B.,  17  j^ears.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  Hght  brown,  straight; 

skin  17,  43,  20,  20. 

7 ,  cf .  A.  B . ,  1 4  years.    Eyes  dark  brown ;  hair  dark  brown,  straight ; 

skin  8,  45,  20,  27. 

8,  cf .  E.  B.,  9  years.     Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  dark  brown, 

straight;  skin  say  N  20. 

9,  cf .  K.  B.,  7  years.    Eyes  hazel;  hair  light  brown,  sHghtly  curly; 

skin  17,  45,  19,  19. 
10,  c^.  H.  B.,  8  months.    Eyes  Hght  brown;  hair  Hght  brown,  wavy; 
skin  6,  40,  20,  34. 

Pedigree  17.     T.  Family. 

I  Gen. — Three  children  were  bom  of  a  white  father,  —  R.,  who  was  possibly 
Portuguese,  and  of  a  quadroon  mother. 

1.  The  first  daughter,  who  has  gray  eyes,  dark  brown, 
straight  hair,  skin  10,  43,  24,  23;  married  F.  T.,  whose 
father  was  said  to  be  an  Fi  mulatto  and  whose  mother 
(derived  from  a  "sambo"  father  and  a  mulatto  mother) 
has  typical  mediiim  brown,  curly  hair;  skin  25,  40,  14,  21. 
He  has  brown  eyes,  typical  negro  hair,  skin  20,  40,  18,  12. 
They  have  three  children  (II  i,  2,  3). 

2.  The  other  daughter,  A.  R.,  who  is  21  years  old,  has 
medium  brown  eyes,  straight,  medium  brown  hair;  would 
pass  an^-^vhere  for  a  white  woman ;  fair,  somewhat  freckled 
skin,  5,  27,  23,  45.  .... 

3.  The  son  is  said  to  be  like  his  oldest  sister,  i.e.,  skin 

say  N  10. 
II  Gen.—i,  9  .  I.  T.,  II  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  wavy; 

skin  26,  44,  15,  15-  ,    .     ,    ,   ,  .•     „ 

2,  d".  H.  T.,  10  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  practically 

straight;  skin  24,  42,  15,  19- 

3,  9  .  D.  T.,  4  years.     Eyes  brown;  hair  dark  bro\\Ti,  wavy;  too 

shy  to  have  skin  tested,  but  probably  is  like  II  2. 


80       HEREDITY   OF    SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

Pedigree  i8.     P.  Family. 

I  Gen. — A  medium-colored  woman  is  the  daughter  of  a  brown  man  (whose 
father  was  a  quadroon  and  whose  m^other,  with  dark, 
straight  hair,  was  partly  East  Indian)  and  of  an  Fi  mulatto 
woman  80  years  old;  eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black,  curly; 
skin  28,  48,  15,  9.  This  woman,  who  has  dark  brown  eyes, 
very  curly  hair,  skin  30,  43,  15,  12,  married  twice. 

By  her  first  husband,  whose  grandfather  was  Scotch, 
and  whose  skin  was  sa}^  N  20,  she  had  one  son,  J.  M.,  a 
boy  15  years  old;  eyes  light  brown;  hair  mediimi  brown, 
curly;  skin  23,  40,  18,  19. 

By  her  other  husband,  D.  P.,  a  man  of  colored  origin, 

with  black  eyes,  black,  curly  hair,  skin  8,  37,  22,  33,  she 

had  five  children  (II  1-5). 

11  Gen. — I,  9.  L.  P.,   10  years.     Eyes  mediimi  brown;  hair  light  brown, 

tightly  curled;  the  fairest  in  the  family;  skin  20,  40,  22,  18. 

2,  9  .  C.  P.,  8  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  tightly 

curled;  skin  24,  48,  17,  11. 

3,  cf .  H.  P.,  6  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  curly; 

skin  24,  45,  19,  12. 

4,  cf.  A.  P.,  3  years.    Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

curly;  skin  31,  41,  15,  13. 

5,  cf .  G.  P.,  I  year.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  curly; 

skin  50,  35,  8,  7. 

Pedigree  19.     S.  Family. 

I  Gen. — Three  Fi  mulattoes  were  bom  of  a  white  father  and  a  black 
mother,  all  of  them  being  about  N  30. 

1.  The  first  married  a  fair-skinned  man,  the  son  of  a 
white  man  and  a  quadroon,  by  whom  she  had  one  son, 
C.  P.,  who  has  dark  brown  eyes,  black,  straight  hair,  skin 
3,  42,  22,  33.  He  married  his  own  cousin,  the  daughter  of 
the  second  Fi  mulatto  sister  and  a  quadroon.  She  has  dark 
brown  eyes,  black,  curly  hair,  skin  25,  47,  16,  12.  They 
have  nine  children  (II  1-9). 

2.  The  Fi  mulatto  son,  —  S.,  married  a  light-skinned 
woman;  skin  say  N  10;  by  whom  he  had  a  son,  W.  J.  S. 
This  son,  who  has  dark  brown  eyes,  dark  brown  curly  hair, 
skin  8,  40,  24,  28,  married  a  woman  with  light  brown  eyes, 
dark  brown  wavy  hair,  skin  25,  44,  15,  16,  both  of  her 
parents  being  very  fair.  They  have  seven  children  (II 
10-16). 

II  Gen. — I,  9  .  C.  P.,  25  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black,  wavy;  skin 
29,  45,  15,  II. 

2,  cf .  J.  P.,  23  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black,  very  curly; 

skin  28,  42,  18,  12. 

3,  d^.  C.  P.,  21  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  very 

curly;  skin  25,  34,  22,  19.  _ 

4,  cf .  S.  P.,  19  years.    Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

straight;  skin  13,  30,  25,  32.    (Record  taken  in  a  poor  light.) 

5,  9  .  V.  P.,  16  years.    Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

very  curly;  skin  20,  45,  17,  18. 


JAMAICAN   FAMILIES.  81 

6,  cf .  E.  P.,   14  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

wavy;  skin  27,  40,  15,  18. 

7,  9  .  E.  P.,  II  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  medium  brown,  straight; 

skin  20,  41,  20,  19. 

8,  cf .  R.  P.,  9  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  Hght  brown,  straight;  skin 

21,  39,  21,  19. 

9,  9  .  M.  P.,  6  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brovsTi,  wavy; 

skin  25,  40,  17,  18. 


10,  d^ .  T.  S.,  19  years.    Eyes  dark  brown ;  hair  dark  brown,  straight ; 

skin  25,  43,  17,  15. 

11,  cf .  E.  S.,  17  years.    Ej-es  medium  brown;  hair  medium,  some- 

what wavy;  skin  5,  38,  25,  32. 

12,  9  .  I.  S.,  15  years.    Eyes  light  brown;  hair  light  brown,  some- 

what wavy;  skin  10,  42,  22,  26. 

13,  9  .  N.  S.,  13  3'ears.    Eyes  dark  brown ;  hair  medium  brown,  some- 

what curly;  skin  30,  40,  15,  15. 

14,  9  .  I.  S.,  10  years.    Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  very 

curly;  skin  30,  43,  15,  12. 

15,  cf.  W.  S.,  7  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  straight; 

passes  for  white;  skin  9,  38,  23,  30. 

16,  9  .  E.  S.,  5  years.    Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  nearly  straight; 

could  pass  for  white;  skin  9,  38,  25,  28. 

Pedigree  20.    W.  Family. 

I  Gen. — Two  sisters  were  born  of  a  Jewish  father  and  a  mother  with  skin 
say  N  20.  (i)  The  first  sister,  who  has  dark  brown  eyes, 
dark  brown  curly  hair,  skin  13,  38,  21,  28,  married  R.  W., 
with  skin  say  N  33,  being  the  son  of  a  colored  father  and  a 
sambo  mother.  They  have  four  children  (II  1-4).  (2)  The 
other  sister,  who  is  the  fairer,  married  a  very  fair  man  who 
would  pass  for  white.  They  have  one  daughter,  who  has 
dark  brown  eyes ;  black,  straight  hair ;  olive  skin  15,46,20, 19. 
II  Gen. — I,  cf.  D.  W.,  lo  years.  Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  curly; 
skin  33,  41,  14,  12. 

2,  cf .  A.  W.,  8  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  fairly  straight;  skin 

19,  35?,  18,  28  (adjusted). 

3,  9  .  E.  W.,  6  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  wavy; 

too  shy  to  have  her  skin  tested,  but  probably  N  19. 

4,  9  .  V.  W.,  t  2  years.    Eyes  black;  hair  light  brovNTi;  skin  clearer 

than  that  of  the  others. 

Pedigree  21.     W.  Family. 

I  Gen. W.,  now  dead,  was  said  to  have  had  skin  as  fair  as  N  4,  and 

would  have  passed  for  white  anj^where.  He  was  the  son  of 
a  Scotchman  and  a  ver>'  fair-colored  woman  with  blue 
eyes,  the  daughter  of  an  Englishman  and  a  colored  woman. 
He  married  a  woman  with  dark  brown  eyes;  black  hair 
that  waves  a  little  about  her  face;  skin  7,  46,  23,  24.  Her 
father  was  a  ver}'  fair  man  ^N-ith  some  colored  blood  from 
his  partly  Jewish  father,  and  her  mother  was  a  woman  ^^^th 
skin  say  N  10,  being  the  daughter  of  an  East  Indian  and  a 
French  woman.    They  have  eight  children. 


82       HEREDITY   OF    SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

II  Gen. — I,  9  .  V.  W.,  23  years.    Eyes  light  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  slightly 
curly;  would  pass  for  white;  skin  say  N  4. 

2,  9  .  M.  W.,  2 1  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  slightly 

wavy;  Spanish  looking;  skin  15,  40,  23,  22. 

3,  cf .  E.  W.,  19  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  straight; 

shows  colored  blood  slightly,  as  he  tans  deeply;  skin  7,  44, 
21,  28. 

4,  cT .  H.  W. ,  1 7  years.    Eyes  dark  brown ;  hair  dark  brown,  straight ; 

shows  his  colored  blood  plainly;  skin  ig,  39,  21,  21. 

5,  9  .  S.  W.,  15  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  very  light  brown, 

practically  straight;  would  pass  for  white  if  not  sunburned; 
skin  4,  31,  26,  39. 

6,  9  .  R.  W.,  12  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  light  brown,  slightly 

wavy;  sunburned;  skin  4,  31,  26,  39. 

7,  cf .  F.  W.,  10  years.    Said  to  be  like  II  6. 

8,  9  .  A.  W.,  8  years.    Said  to  be  like  II  4. 

Pedigree  22.     D.  Family. 

I  Gen. — Two  sisters  and  a  brother  were  born  of  a  blue-eyed  man  who  would 
pass  for  white,  being  of  Scotch,  English,  and  colored  descent, 
and  of  a  woman  whose  father  was  a  "bastard  Jew"  (i.e., 
probably  Jew  X  colored)  and  whose  mother  was  a  sambo 
woman. 

1.  The  first,  who  has  dark  brown  eyes;  black,  straight 
hair,  waving  a  bit  about  her  face;  skin  15,  45,  20,  20;  mar- 
ried —  D.,  a  typical  sambo-colored  man,  who  has  brown 
eyes;  black,  kinky  hair;  skin  22,  46,  15,  17.  They  have 
six  children  (II  1-6). 

2.  The  brother  has  medium  brown  eyes;  black,  straight 
hair;  skin  10,  38,  24,  28, 

3.  The  other  sister  has  dark  brown  eyes;  black,  slightly 
wavy  hair;  color  was  distvubed  by  a  very  vigorous  scrubbing 
before  being  tested;  result,  14,  50,  15,  21;  probably  19,  45, 
15,  21  is  nearer  the  normal  color. 

II  Gen. — I,  9  .  E.  D.,  10  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  light  brown,  curl}^; 
skin  12,  45,  20,  23. 

2,  cf.  E.  D.,  8  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  mediiim  brown, 

typically  curly;  skin  13,  42,  20,  25. 

3,  cT.  O.   D.,  6  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black,  typically 

curly;  skin  30,  45,  14,  11.     ^ 

4,  cf.  E.  D.,   5  years.     Eyes  mediimi  brown;  hair  light  yellow, 

ahnost  golden,  curly;  slightly  freckled,  fair  skin  5,  42,  20,  7,3- 

5,  cf .  W.  D.,  3  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  prac- 

tically straight;  skin  30,  46,  11,  13. 

6,  cf .  O.  D.,  16  months.     Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  very  light 

brown,  almost  yellow;  skin  18,  44,  20,  18. 

Pedigree  23.     B.  Family. 

I  Gen. B.,  who  has  a  very  dark  brother,  has  dark  brown  eyes;  light 

brown,  straight  hair;  a  very  fair  skin.  He  married  the 
daughter  of  a  black  man  and  a  mulatto.  She  has  dark 
brown  eyes;  typically  negro  kinky  hair;  skin  38,  44,  8,  10. 
They  have  seven  children. 


JAMAICAN   FAMILIES.  83 

II  Gen. — I,  9  .  G.   B.,    13   years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black,  slightly 
curly;  skin  say  N  27. 

2,  cf.  F.  B.,  12  years.    About  like  II  3  in  skin  color. 

3,  cT.  A.  B.,  10  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  almost 

straight;  skin  28,  47,  14,  11. 

4,  cf.  C.  B.,  8  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  nearly 

straight;  skin  27,  48,  15,  10. 

5,  9  .  E.  B.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown,  curly;  skin 

27,  45,  15,  13. 

6,  9.  IM.  B.     Eyes  dark  brown ;  hair  medium  brown,  curly;  skin 

35,  45,  12,  8. 

7,  9  .  L.  B.,  2  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  Hght  brown,  straight; 

skin  21,  50,  14,  15. 

Pedigree  24.     B.  Family. 

I  Gen. — E.  B.,  with  not  very  curly  hair,  shows  his  white  blood  plainly, 
having  skin  say  N  20.  He  married  a  woman  whose  father 
was  possibly  pure  white  and  whose  mother  was  black  with 
skin  54,  35,  6,  5.  She  has  dark  brown  eyes;  typically 
curly  hair;  skin  32,  44,  12,  12.  They  have  three  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  9  .  I.  B.,  13  years.     Typical  negro  eyes  and  hair;  skin  32,  41, 

13.  ^4-  , 

2,  d^.  C.  B.,  6  years.     Typical  negro  eyes  and  hair;  skin  28,  41, 

15,  16. 

3,  9  .  D.  B.,  2^  years.    Typical  negro  eyes  and  hair;  skin  25,  45, 

i5>  IS- 

Pedigree  25.     S.  Family. 

IGen. S. ,  son  of  a  white  man  and  of  a  woman  whose  father  was  white  and 

whose  mother  was  sambo,  has  brown  eyes;  black,  straight 
hair;  skin  o,  28, 18,  54.  He  married  a  Hght-colored  woman 
whose  father  was  colored  and  whose  mother  was  the  daughter 
of  a  white  man  and  an  Indian  woman.  She  is  said  to  be  the 
only  one  in  her  family  who  shows  colored  blood  in  the  skin, 
which  is  say  N  25.  They  have  nine  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  9  .  W.  S.,  21  years.  Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  very 
curly;  fair,  white  skin  6,  37,  20,  37. 

2,  9  .  G.  S.,  20  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  red  brown,  wavy; 

skin  10,  35,  18,  37. 

3,  9  .  G.  S.,  18  years.    Eyes  greenish,  hair  medium  brown,  wavy; 

skin  15,  40,  20,  25. 

4,  cf .  H.    S.,    16   years.     Eyes  greenish;   hair   "mouse-colored." 

slightly  curly;  skin  10,  35,  20,  35. 

5,  c?'.  A.  S.,   14  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

slightly  curly;  skin  8,  33,  23,  36. 

6,  cf .  D.   S.,   12   years.     Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  red;  white, 

much  freckled  skin  4,  34,  19,  43. 

7,  9  .  D.  S.,  8  years.     Eyes  green;  hair  medium  brown,  curly; 

skin  12,  41,  17,  30. 

8,  9  .  P.  S.,  6  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  reddish-brown,  curly; 

skin  8,  34,  21,  37. 

9,  cf .  H.   S.,   6  months.     Eyes  dark  brown;   hair  dark   brown, 

straight;  skin  23,  45,  15,  17. 


84       HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

Pedigree  26.     C.  Family. 

I  Gen. C,  now  dead,  whose  paternal  grandfather  was  a  Jew  and  whose 

maternal  grandmother  was  French,  had  quite  curly,  black 
hair;  skin  like  that  of  his  wife,  i.e.,  say  N  15.  His  wife, 
w^hose  paternal  grandfather  was  Spanish  and  whose  mother 
had  skin  say  N  20,  has  dark  brown  eyes;  black,  straight 
hair;  skin  15,  40,  21,  24.  They  have  seven  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  cf.  E.  C,  26  years.  Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black,  somewhat 
curly;  skin  5,  27,  20,  48. 

2,  9  .  G.  C.  [G.],  24  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black,  very 

curly;  skin  26,  36,  18,  20,  but  appeared  fairer. 

3,  9  .  M.  C,  20  years.    Like  II  7. 

4,  9  .  I.  C.,  18  3'ears.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black,  very  curly; 

skin  23,  35,  19,  23. 

5,  &.  R.  C,  15  years.    Like  II  4. 

6,  9  .  B.  C.,  14  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black,  straight; 

skin  25,  41,  15,  19. 

7,  cf .  V.  C.,  II  3^ears.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black,  straight; 

skin  35,  36,  14,  15. 

Pedigree  27.     S.  Family. 

I  Gen. — C.  S.,  who  has  dark  brown  eyes;  somewhat  curly,  dark  brown  hair; 
skin  say  N  3  5,  had  a  white  paternal  great-grandfather.  He 
married  a  woman  who  also  had  a  white  paternal  great- 
grandfather. She  has  dark  brown  eyes;  somewhat  curly, 
dark  brown  hair;  skin  say  N  32.  They  have  five  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  cT.  E.  S.,  8  years.  Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black,  typically  curly; 
skin  35,  35,  16,  14. 

2,  9.  D.  S.,  7  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  light  brown,  very 

curly;  skin  30,  33,  17,  20. 

3,  9.  F.  S.,  6  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  very 

curly;  skin  32,  35,  17,  16. 

4,  <S^.  D.  S.,  3  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown; 

slightly  curly;  skin  34,  29,  15,  22. 

5,  9  .  G.  S.,  2  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown,  curly; 

skin  45,  37,  9,  9. 

Pedigree  28.     N.  Family. 

T  Gen. N.  is  the  son  of  a  very  fair  man  with  dark  eyes  and  hair,  and  a 

fair-skinned  woman  with  black,  straight  hair,  probably  of 
Spanish  descent.  His  paternal  grandfather  was  French. 
He  looks  like  a  Spaniard  with  his  black  eyes,  somewhat 
curly  hair,  clear  skin  2,  25,  20,  53.  His  wife  (whose  father 
had  skin  say  N  20,  and  whose  mother  had  fine,  straight 
hair;  skin  say  N  18)  has  dark  brown  eyes;  abundant  fine 
hair  that  is  quite  curly;  skin  13,  48,  20,  19.  They  have 
five  children  (II  1-5).  —  N.  has  a  first  cousin  on  his 
mother's  side  whose  father  was  dark-colored  and  whose 
mother  was  fair.  This  cousin  has  dark  brown  eyes;  black, 
curly  hair;  skin  30,  35,  16,  19.  She  married  a  man  who  is 
about  her  color,  possibly  a  trifle  darker,  by  whom  she  had 
one  daughter,  a  child  4  months  old;  eyes  black;  hair  black, 
straight;  clear  olive  skin,  10,  33,  20,  37. 


JAMAICAN   FAMILIES.  85 

II  Gen. —  I,  9.  I-  N.,  ii  years.    Eyes  brown;  hair  yellow-brown,  perfectly 
straight;  skin  5,  34,  18,  43. 

2,  9  .  B.  N.,  8  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  wavy; 

skin  25,  45,  16,  14. 

3,  9.  L.  N.,  7  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  curly; 

skin  29,  44,  15,  12. 

4,  d^.  V.  N.,   5  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

straight;  skin  24,  42,  15,  19. 

5,  9  .  G.  N.,  2  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  light  brown,  straight; 

skin  25,  45,  16,  14. 

Pedigree  29.     W.  Family. 

I  Gen. W.,  w^hose  father  is  lighter  than  she  and  whose  mother  is  piire 

black,  has  typical  negro  eyes  and  hair;  skin  37,  47,  13,  3. 
She  claims  that  D.  S.,  whose  father  has  skin  say  N  28, 
and  whose  mother  is  black,  is  the  father  of  her  sL\  children. 
He  has  typical  negro  eyes  and  hair;  skin  30,  41,  14,  15. 
II  Gen. — I,  9.  F.W.,ioyears.    Typical  negro  eyes  and  hair;  skin  46,36, 11,  7. 

2,  9.  E.  W.,8years.    Typical  negro  eyes  and  hair;  skin  52,  37,  8,  3. 

3,  cT.  D.  W.,  3  years.    Typical  negro  eyes  and  hair;  skin  50,  35,  8,  7. 
4-6.  t  inf.    One  of  these  was  a  little  fairer  than  II  i. 

Pedigree  30.     F.  Family. 

I  Gen. — C.  F.,  whose  paternal  grandfather  was  a  Jew,  and  whose  maternal 
great-grandfather  was  Scotch,  has  dark  brown  eyes;  black, 
very  wavy  hair;  skin  19,  42,  18,  21.  His  wife  claims  a 
strictly  white  Spanish  ancestry,  but  there  may  be  a  little 
colored  blood.  She  has  dark  brown  eyes;  beautiful,  dark 
red-brown  hair,  slightly  wavy;  a  very  white,  somewhat 
freckled  skin  3,  33,  18,  46.  They  have  six  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  9  .  L.  F.,  12  years.  Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  straight; 
skin  8,  40,  15,  37. 

2,  9  .  S.  F.,  II  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  wavy; 

skin  26,  45,  14,  15. 

3,  cf .  R.  F.,  9  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  wavy; 

skin  20,  45,  18,  17. 

4,  cT.  C.  F.,  8  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  very  dark  brown, 

straight;  skin  17,  40,  15,  28. 

5,  9  .  M.  F.,  5  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  wavy; 

skin  16,  42,  23,  19. 

6,  9.  M.   F.,  4  months.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown, 

wavy;  skin  5,  40,  18,  37. 

Pedigree  31.     L.  Family. 

I  Gett. — I.  —  L.,  son  of  a  possibly  pure  white  man  and  a  dark-colored 
woman,  has  mediimi  brown  eyes;  black,  very  wavy  hair; 
skin  26,  45,  15,  14.  His  wife,  the  daughter  of  a  quadroon 
and  a  pure  black  woman,  has  typical  negro  eyes  and  hair; 
skin  37,  38,  13,  12.    They  have  eight  children  (II  i-S). 

2.  —  W.,  brother  of  the  wife  of  I  i,  with  skin  say  N  37, 
married  a  woman  fairer  than  himself,  by  whoin  he  had  a 
son,  R.  W.,  8  years  old;  eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  bro\sTi, 
very  curly;  skin  13,  46,  20,  21. 


86       HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

3.  A  sister  of  —  W.  (II  2)  with  skin  say  N  37,  married  a 
man,  —  P.,  with  skin  say  N  13,  by  whom  she  had  one  son, 
H.  P.,  9  years  old;  eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown, 
nearly  straight;  skin  27,  43,  16,  14. 
II  Gen. — I,  cf .  A.  L.,  17  years.    Like  II  4. 

2,  cf.  E.  L.,  IS  years.    Like  II  4. 

3,  9  .  L.  L.,  14  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  typical  curly  hair;  skin 

39,  40,  12,  9. 

4,  9 .  A.  L.,   12  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  nearly  typical  curly 

hair;  skin  30,  36,  16,  18. 

5,  cf .  A.  L.,  10  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  typical  hair;  skin  40,  37, 

13.  lo- 

6,  9.  D.  L.,  8  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  not  as  curly  as 

No.  3's;  skin  27,  43,  15,  15. 

7,  cf .  I.  L.,  7  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  practically  typical  negro 

hair;  skin  30,  45,  13,  12. 

8,  c?'.  O.  L.,  4  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

slightly  curly;  skin  6,  47,  22,  25. 

Pedigree  32.     S.  Family. 

I  Gen. — Five  children  were  bom  of  —  S.  (who  is  called  "fair,"  having 
skin  say  N  25,  and  being  the  son  of  a  white  man  and  a 
black  woman)  and  of  a  woman  who  has  typical  negro  eyes 
and  hair;  skin  39,  45,  7,  9. 

1.  The  first,  a  daughter,  with  skin  say  N  20,  married 
—  G.,  whose  skin  is  as  light  as  N  6.  They  have  three 
daughters  (II  1-3). 

2.  The  second,  a  daughter,  with  skin  say  N  20,  has  two 
illegitimate  children.  The  first  child,  a  girl,  E.  S.,  8  years 
old,  whose  father  is  "dark,"  has  typical  woolly  hair;  skin 
35,  43,  II,  II.  The  second  child,  a  boy,  A.  S.,  4  years  old, 
whose  father  was  very  fair,  possibly  white,  has  dark  brown 
eyes;  light  brown,  straight  hair;  skin  9,  39?,  20, 31  (adjusted). 

3.  A  son,  —  S.,  has  skin  6,  40,  24,  30. 

4.  The  third  daughter,  who  has  typical  hair,  skin  17,  50, 
17,  16,  married  —  E.,  who  has  skin  say  N  35.  They  have 
three  children  (II  4-6). 

5.  The  fifth  daughter  has  typical  hair;  skin  17,  50,  17,  16. 
II  Gen. — I,  9.  M.  G.,  15  years.    Skin  30,  45,  12,  13. 

2,  9.  C.  G.,  13  years.    Skin  25,  45,  15,  15. 
3,9.1.  G.,  9  years.    Skin  20,  50,  16,  14. 


4,  cf .  H.  E.,  14  years.    Said  to  be  like  II  5. 

5,  9.  M.  E.,  12  years.     Hair  not  quite  as  kinky  as  her  sister's; 

skin  28,  41,  19,  12. 

6,  9  .  E.  E.,  9  years.    Typical  hair;  skin  35,  45,  10,  10. 

Pedigree  33,     M,  Family. 

I  Gen. — S.  M.,  son  of  a  man  half  Jew  and  of  a  woman  lighter  than  her 
husband,  having  skin  say  N  25,  has  light  brown  eyes; 
black,  kinky  hair;  skin  10,  35,  20,  35.  He  married  a  woman 
who  is  the  daughter  of  a  Chinaman  and  a  sambo  woman 
with  skin  say  N  32.  She  has  medium  brown  eyes,  black, 
very  wavy  hair,  skin  say  N  12.    They  have  six  children. 


JAMAICAN   FAMILIES.  87 

II  Gen. — I,  cT.  H.  M.,  12  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  typ- 
ical; skin  17,  40,  17,  16. 

2,  cf .  R.  M.,  9  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

straight;  skin  8,  38,  25,  29. 

3,  9  .  IM.  IM.,  7  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  light  brown,  curly; 

skin  16,  35,  20,  29. 

4,  9  .  L.  M.,  5  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  very 

curly;  skin  21,  38,  19,  22. 

5,  9  .  J.  M.,  3  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  light  brown,  almost 

yellow,  very  curly;  skin  8,  40,  23,  29  or  darker. 

6,  9  .  I.  jNI.,  7  months.    Eyes  gray;  hair  black,  curly;  skin  10,  40, 

23,  27. 

Pedigree  34.     S.  Family. 

I  Gen. — An  Englishman,  —  S.,  who  has  light  hazel  eyes  and  brown  hair, 
married  a  woman  with  very  good  features;  very  dark 
brown  eyes;  black,  straight  hair;  to  all  appearances  a 
brunet.  Her  mother  was  Scotch  and  her  paternal  great- 
grandfather was  Scotch,  the  colored  blood  being  from  the 
paternal  side.  They  have  ten  children,  of  whom  the 
standard  color  determination  was  taken  for  one  brunet  and 
for  one  blond. 
II  Gen. — I,  cf.  Eyes  brown;  hair  straight;  brunet. 

Eyes  brown;  hair  straight;  bnmet. 

Eyes  brown;  hair  wavy;  brunet. 

Eyes  brown;  hair  straight;  brunet. 

Eyes  brown ;  hair  straight ;  blond. 

Eyes  brown;  hair  wav}';  brunet. 

Eyes  blue;  hair  wavy;  blond. 

Eyes  blue;  hair  straight;  blond. 

Ej-es  brown;  hair  straight;  brunet;  skin  7,  41,  22,  30. 

Eyes  brown;  hair  straight;  blond;  skin  2,  35,  20,  43. 

The  blonds  would  pass  for  pure  English,  and,  except 
in  Jamaica,  the  brunets  would  pass  unquestioned.  The 
brunets  tan  more  deeply  than  the  blonds,  so  the  contrast 
shows  more  plainly  w'hen  one  sees  them. 

Pedigree  35.     S.  Family. 

I  Gen. S.,  son  of  a  Jew  and  a  dark  brunet,  skin  say  N  15  per  cent,  the 

daughter  of  a  white  father  and  colored  mother;  has  fine 
features;  gray  eyes  and  sHghtly  curly  hair,  which,  judging 
from  a  photograph,  is  coarse  and  shows  his  negro  blood. 
He  married  a  dark-eyed,  practically  straight-haired,  very 
white-skinned  woman,  whose  father  was  a  fair-skinned 
man  with  blue  eyes,  the  son  of  a  Spaniard  and  a  Creole.* 
Her  mother,  daughter  of  a  blue-eyed  Englishman  and  a 
Creole,  was  a  fair-skinned  woman  with  medium  brown 
eyes;  bro\vn,  slightly  wavy  hair.  They  have  six  sons  and  a 
daughter,  all  but  two  of  whom  have  skin  about  4,  28,  17,  51. 


-I, 

& 

2, 

9 

3. 

9 

4, 

9 

5. 

cT 

6, 

cf 

7, 

9 

8, 

9 

9. 

& 

0, 

cT 

*  Creole  probably  indicates,  in  this  instance,  a  little  colored  blood,  but  fair  complexion 
such  as  would  pass  for  white.  The  term  is  applied  diversely  in  Jamaica;  sometimes  to 
indicate  a  native  white;  sometimes  to  indicate  a  native,  merely;  thus,  "a  creole  dog" 
(Official  Guide,  Jamaica  Tourist  Assn.,  1912,  p.  56).  In  Soutli  America,  as  is  well  known, 
the  term  impHes  colored  blood;  but  in  Louisiana  it  excludes  colored  blood  (Johnston, 
1910,  p.  55). 


88        HEREDITY   OF    SKIN    COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

II  Gen. — Two  boys  have  coarse,  quite  curly  hair,  which  is  dark  brown  and 
shows  negro  blood.  One  of  the  two  gray-eyed  boys  has 
mouse-colored  hair  which  is  inclined  to  curl.  All  the  others 
have  soft,  dark  brown,  very  slightly  wavy  hair,  except  the 
baby,  whose  golden,  wavy  hair  will  probably  turn  darker. 

The  little  girl  has  skin  say  N  1 2,  and  one  boy  is  ordinarily 
of  the  same  color,  but  temporarily  much  darker  from  play- 
ing cricket. 

Pedigree  36.     B.  Family. 

I  Gen. — A  "brown"  man  with  "bad  hair,"  whose  photograph  plainly  in- 
dicates colored  blood,  married  a  brown-eyed,  brown- 
haired,  clear,  fair-skinned  woman,  the  daughter  of  a  Jew 
and  a  fair-skinned  woman  with  colored  blood.  They  have 
seven  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  cf.  Hair  brown,  straight;  skin  clear,  white. 

2,  cf .  Resembles  II  i  in  hair  and  skin  color. 

3,  cf .  "Bad"  {i.e.,  coarse  and  curly)  hair;  fair  skin, 

4,  9  .  "Bad"  hair;  dark  skin  say  N  12. 

5,  9  .  Hair  golden,  straight;  fair  skin. 

6,  9  .  Hair  golden,  straight;  fair  skin. 
9  .  Hair  golden,  curly ;  fair  skin. 


/ ) 


Pedigree  37.     M.  Family. 

I  Gen. — M.  is  the  son  of  a  piire  Scotchman  and  a  Creole  whose  skin  from 
comparisons  was  judged  to  be  N  15  per  cent  and  who  had 
long,  straight  black  hair.  M.'s  hair  and  probably  olive 
complexion  show  his  colored  blood  sHghtly.  He  married  a 
woman  with  straight,  dark  brown  hair,  who  maintains 
she  is  white,  her  father  to  be  a  German  and  her  mother  a 
French  refugee.  Photographs  of  this  Avoman's  three 
brothers  show  "suspicious  hair,"  and  consequently  there 
is  probably  a  Httle  colored  blood  in  her  ancestry.  She  has 
eight  children  with  practically  straight  hair  and  dark 
brown  eyes. 
II  Gen. —  I,  cf .  Hair  brown;  olive  skin. 

Hair  black;  w^hite  skin. 

Hair  black;  olive  skin. 

Hair  light  brown;  oHve  skin. 

Hair  light  brown;  olive  skin. 

Hair  brown;  olive  skin. 

Hair  brovvTi;  olive  skin. 

Hair  brown;  olive  skin. 

Pedigree  38.     H.  Family. 

I  Gen. — Three  children  were  bom  to  J.  C.  (who  has  skin  say  N  15  per  cent 
and  whose  maternal  grandfather  was  Scotch)  and  his  wife, 
a  daughter  of  an  Englishman  and  a  sambo  woman.  She 
has  dark  brown  eyes;  hair  formerly  dark  brown  or  black, 
now  gray,  very  curly  and  almost  tj^pical;  skin  7,  35,  23,  35. 
I.  The  first  daughter  (who  has  dark  brown  eyes;  very 
curly  coarse  hair;  skin  19,  36,  19,  26)  married  H.  (who  has 


2, 

& 

3, 

& 

4, 

& 

5, 

& 

6, 

9 

7) 

9 

8, 

9 

JAMAICAN   FAMILIES.  89 

dark  brown  eyes;  quite  straight,  dark  brown  hair;  skin 
5,  25,  20,  50).  They  have  four  children  (II  i,  2.  3,  4).  H., 
by  a  former  marriage  with  a  woman  whose  hair  was  dark 
brown  and  quite  straight,  skin  say  N  15,  and  whose  photo- 
graph suggests  the  possibility  of  Jewish  blood,  had  a  son, 
D.  H.,  13  years  old;  eyes  dark  brown;  hair  very  brown, 
straight;  skin  11,  37,  19,  33. 

2.  The  second  child,  a  son,  W.  C,  who  has  dark  brown 
eyes,  typical  black  curly  or  kinky  hair,  skin  7,  40,  16,  37, 
married  a  woman,  the  child  of  a  partly  Jewish  father  and 
a  colored  mother,  u-ith  skin  say  N  20  per  cent.  She  has 
dark  brown  eyes;  black,  nearly  straight  hair;  skin  16,  40, 
18,  26;  and  is  the  mother  of  his  three  children  (II  5,  6,  7). 

3.  Her  half-sister,  who  had  a  fairer  mother,  has  dark 
brown,  very  curly  hair;  skin  9,  30,  17,  44. 

4.  Her  half-brother  is  not  as  dark  as  she,  but  is  darker 
than  his  full  sister. 

5.  Another  son,  J.  C,  now  dead,  whose  skin  was  like 
his  brother's,  i.e.,  N  7  per  cent,  married  a  woman  whose 
paternal  grandfather  was  a  Jew  and  whose  maternal  grand- 
father was  Scotch.  She  has  dark-brown  eyes;  black, 
straight  hair;  skin  9,  34,  24,  33.  They  have  three  children 
(II  8,  9,  10). 

II  Gen. — I,  cf.  P.  H.,  f  13  months.    Skin  like  II  4. 

2,  $.  IM.  H.,  5  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  very 

curly  but  softer  than  mother's;  skin  6,  38,  22,  34. 

3,  cf .  H.  H.,  3  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  very 

curly  and  coarse;  skin  9,  35,  21,  35. 

4,  cf .  H.  H.,  15  months.     Eyes  dark  brown;    hair  dark  brown, 

curly  and  soft;  skin  9,  35,  21,  35. 


5,  9  .  E.  C,  3  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  soft  but 

very  curly;  skin  12,  45,  iS,  25. 

6,  cf .  W.  C.,   1 3^  years.     Eyes  dark   brown;   hair  dark   brown, 

coarse;  skin  7,  44,  17,  32. 

7,  cf .  3  weeks.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  brown,  soft  and  straight; 

skin  pink. 


8,  cf.  J-  C,  5  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown  and  nearly 

typically  curly;  skin  12,  41,  19,  28. 

9,  cf .  R.  C,  4  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  bro^NTi  and 

nearly  typically  curly;  skin  16,  40,  19,  25. 
10,  9.  C.   C,   2   j^ears.     Eyes  black;  hair  light  brown,  straight; 
skin  4,  33,  20,  43. 

Pedigree  39.     M.  Family. 

I  Gen. — I.  M.,  whose  mother  and  father's  father  were  white,  would  pass 
for  white  with  his  line  straight  hair;  clear  skin  say  N  5 
per  cent.  He  married  a  woman  whose  maternal  grand- 
father was  of  French  and  Haitian  (negro)  descent,  and 
whose  father  is  colored.  She  shows  her  colored  blood 
plainly  in  her  dark  brown  eyes;  black,  ver}-  curly  hair; 
skin  12,  39,  20,  29.    They  have  six  children. 


90        HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-AVHITE   CROSSES. 

II  Gen. — I,  9  .  L.  M.,  15  years.  Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  straight; 
fairer  than  a  brunet;  pass  for  white  anywhere;  skin  8,  37,  21, 
34- 

2,  9  .  L.  M.,  14  years.    Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

straight;  pass  for  white  anywhere;  skin  8,  38,  22,  32. 

3,  9  .  C.  M.,  12  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  slightly 

wavy;  fairest  in  the  family;  pass  for  white  am^'here;  skin 
5,  35.  23,  37- 

4,  9  .  E.  M.,  10  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  wavy; 

pretty  brown  skin  15,  50,  18,  17. 

5,  cf.  A.  M.,  9  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown,  very 

wa\^;  said  to  be  like  II  6,  but  very  sunburned. 

6,  9  .  C.  M.,  3  years.    Eyes  dark  brown ;  hair  dark  brown  and  wavy ; 

skin  8,  36,  19,  37 ;  would  pass  for  white  in  the  United  States. 

Pedigree  40.     B.  Family. 

(A  colored  family  which  shows  no  pigmentation,  except  possibly  in  one  child.) 

I  Gen. — B.,  who  has  dark,  curh",  rather  coarse  hair  and  a  clear  white  skin, 
is  the  son  of  an  Englishman  and  a  very  fair  colored  woman,  a 
"mustee,"  who  was  darker  than  her  four  sisters.  His  wife, 
w'ho  has  dark  brown  eyes,  straight  dark  brown  hair,  and 
a  clear  complexion,  is  the  daughter  of  an  Englishman  and 
a  Jamaican  whose  ancestors  were  said  to  be  "white  people 
from  Flanders,"  though  there  may  be  a  little  colored  blood. 
They  have  seven  children. 
11  Gen. — I,  9.  Dark  brown,  wa\'y  hair;  the  darkest  complexion,  a  rich 
brunet;  skin  not  more  than  N  10. 

2,4,  9  9  .  Dark  browm,  wavy  hair;  from  photograph  appear  to  be 
brunets;  mother  and  neighbors  say  they  are  fairer  than 
II  I. 

3,  5.  d^  o^-  Medium  brown  eyes  and  medium  brown  straight  hair. 
Pass  for  white  anywhere. 

6,7,  99.  Mediimi  brown  eyes ;  golden  wavy  hair ;  very  white  skin ; 
pass  anj^where  for  white  children,  but  in  Jamaica  their 
wavy  hair  makes  one  suspicious  of  colored  blood. 

Pedigree  41.     T.  Family. 

I  Gen. —  —  T.,  who  has  mediimi  brown  eyes  and  hair,  is  apparently  a 
white  man ;  skin  say  N  5  per  cent ;  but  his  slightly  wav}?"  hair 
and  distinctly  curly  and  scant  mustache  suggest  a  little 
colored  blood.  His  father  was  an  Englishman,  his  mother 
passes  for  white,  his  sister  is  apparently  pure  white  with 
dark  brown  eyes  and  straight  white  hair  (see  Pedigree  45, 
I  Generation).  His  wife,  who  had  a  white  father,  clearly 
shows  her  colored  blood  in  her  light  brown  skin,  say  N  10 
per  cent,  and  brown  eyes,  although  her  hair  is  black  and 
only  waves  slightly.  They  have  seven  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  cf .  J.  T.  Eyes  and  hair  meditmi  brown;  skin  say  N  5  per  cent. 
2,  c^.  J.  E.  T.  Eyes  dark  brown;  black,  curly  hair  and  mustache; 
skin  6,  33,  22,  39. 


JAMAICAN   FAMILIES.  91 

3,  9  .  Curly  dark  brown  hair;  said  to  resemble  her  mother.    Absent. 

4,  cf.  C.  T.     Eyes  brown;  hair  medium  brown,  perhaps  a  little 

curly;  skin  said  to  be  less  than  lo  per  cent.    Absent. 

5,  cf .  P.   T.     Eyes  brown;  hair  medium  brown,   straight;  skin 

say  N  2  per  cent.    Absent. 

6,  9  .  A.  T.    Eyes  blue;  flaxen  hair  which  shows  her  colored  blood 

in  the  slight  curl  and  coarseness;  skin  like  II  7. 

7,  cf.  I.  T.     Eyes  blue;  hair  yellow-brown  and  inclined  to  curl; 

shows  his  colored  blood,  though  his  skin  is  2,  33,  15,  50. 

Pedigree  42.     B.  Family. 

I  Gen. B.,  son  of  a  Jew  and  a  sambo  woman,  has  yellow-browTi  eyes; 

fine,  though  curly,  brown  hair;  skin  say  N  6  per  cent.  His 
wife,  who  had  a  white  paternal  grandfather  and  great- 
grandfather and  a  white  maternal  great-grandfather,  has 
blue-gray  eyes;  black,  practically  straight  hair;  skin  11, 
46,  20,  23.  They  have  seven  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  cf.  V.  B.,  15  years.  Eyes  black;  hair  medium  brown;  skin  say 
N  12  per  cent. 

2,  cT.  D.  B.,   13  years.     Eyes  yellow  brown;  hair  dark  brown, 

straight;  skin  15,  43,  20,  22. 

3,  cf .  L.  B.,  t  7  months.    Eyes  black;  hair  black;  skin  like  II  7. 

4,  cf .  N.  B.,  9  3^ears.    At  birth,  blue  eyes  and  light  yellow  hair, 

but  now  gray-green  eyes  and  medium  brown,  straight  hair ; 
skin  9,  40,  21,  30. 

5,  9  .  E.  B.,  6  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  wavy; 

skin  19,  45,  15,  21. 

6,  cf .  E.  B.,  5  years.    Ej-es  greenish-brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

straight;  skin  13,  43,  17,  27. 

7,  cf .  E.  B.,  18  months.     Eyes  gray;  hair  mediimi  browTi,  wavy; 

skin  12,  41,  21,  26. 

Pedigree  43.     C.  Family. 

I  Gen. C,  son  of  a  white  man,  probably  a  Jew,  and  a  black  woman, 

has  dark  brown  eyes;  black  straight  hair;  skin  say  N  25 
per  cent.  His  vrde  is  the  daughter  of  colored  parents, 
but  her  mother,  with  skin  22,  45,  15,  8,  shows  white  blood 
in  her  hazel  eyes  and  in  her  fine  hair,  which  is  black  and 
waves  slightly.  She  has  dark  brown  eyes;  wa\-y  hair; 
skin  30,  45,  13,  12;  and  is  the  mother  of  six  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  cf.  E.  C,  16  years.  Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black,  curly;  skin 
21,  44,  16,  19. 

2,  9  .  I.  C,  12  3'ears.    Eyes  black;  hair  dark  bro^^^^,  wavy;  skin 

27.  47,  15.  II- 

3,  cf.  R.   C,    10  3'ears.     Eyes  dark  brown;  very  curly,  almost 

typical  black  hair;  skin  29,  41,  15,  5. 

4,  cf.  C.  C,   7  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

nearly  straight;  skin  25,  45,  15,  15. 

5,  9.  M.  C,  5  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  bro\A'n, 

curly;  skin  30,  45,  15,  10. 

6,  cf .  S.  C,  2  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  light  brown,  curly; 

skin  like  II  2. 


92       HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

Pedigree  44.     M.  Family. 

I  Gen. M.,  the  son  of  a  colored  man  and  a  black  woman,  has  dark 

brown  eyes;  nearly  typical  black  curly  hair;  skin  27,  38,  18, 
17.  He  married  a  woman  whose  father  may  have  been 
pure  white  and  whose  mother  was  black.  She  has  dark 
brown  eyes;  nearly  typical  black  curly  hair;  skin  35,  42,  8, 
15.  They  have  two  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  cf .  S.  M.,  7  years.  Eyes  dark  brown;  nearly  typical  dark-brown 
hair;  skin  35,  42,  14,  9. 
2,  9  .  S.  M.,  17  months.  Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 
probably  becoming  darker;  skin  35,  36,  15,  14. 

Pedigree  45.     C.  Family. 

I  Gen. C,  has  Hght  brown  eyes,  lighter  than  those  of  any  of  the  chil- 
dren; black,  slightly  wavy  hair;  would  pass  for  white  any- 
where but  in  Jamaica.  His  father,  —  C,  though  called  a 
"Jew,"  must  have  colored  blood,  as  his  photograph  shows 
thick  lips  and  quite  wavy  hair  (see  Pedigree  50,  I  Genera- 
tion, for  his  brother).  His  mother  has  dark  brown  eyes; 
white,  straight  hair;  would  pass  for  white  (see  Pedigree  41, 
I  Generation) .  He  married  the  daughter  of  an  Englishman 
and  a  woman  who  would  pass  for  white,  though  receiving  a 
little  colored  blood  from  her  mother.  Mrs.  C.  has  gray  eyes, 
dark  brown,  straignt  hair  with  a  slight  aubimi  tinge,  and 
would  pass  for  white  anywhere.  She  has  eight  children. 
II  Gen.  (skin  color  of  fairest  and  darkest  recorded). — i,  9  .  Eyes  gray-green; 
hair  medium  brown ;  straight. 

2,  cf .  Eyes  gray;  hair  black,  straight. 

3,  cf .  Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  straight. 

4,  9  .  Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  straight. 

5,  cf .  Eyes  gray;  hair  medium  brown,  straight;  skin  2,  35,  18,  45. 

6,  9  .  Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  straight ;  skin  8,  47,  20,  25. 

7,  9  .  Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  m.edium  brown,  straight. 

8,  cT.  Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown,  straight. 

Pedigree  46.    A.  Family. 

I  Gen. A.,  who  is  an  Fi  mulatto,  son  of  a  Jew  and  a  pure  black  woman, 

has  skin  say  N  30.  His  wife  has  a  sambo  father  and  a 
mother  who  has  medium  brown  eyes,  wavy  hair,  skin  9,  40, 
17,34.  She  has  dark  brown  eyes ;  typically  black  curly  hair ; 
skin  22,  43,  16,  19.  They  have  five  children.  The  wife  had 
two  sisters  and  a  brother,  all  fairer  than  herself. 
II  Gen. — I,  9  .  Eyes  dark  brown;  typical  black,  curly  hair;  skin3o,  46,  15,  19. 
Married  Mr.  W.  Same  as  Pedigree  22,1  Generation.  Eyes 
meditun  brown;  hair  black  and  straight;  skin  10,  38,  24,  28. 

2,  cf .  —  A.    Typical  eyes  and  hair;  skin  40,  25,  17,  18. 

3,  4,  cf  d^.  Said  to  be  like  II  i. 
5,  9  •  Said  to  be  like  II  2. 

Pedigree  47.     S.  Family. 

I  Gen. S.,  whose  mother  was  pure  East  Indian  and  whose  father  was 

probably  colored,  has  hair  a  trifle  wavy;  skin  say  N  23 
per  cent.  His  wife,  who  had  white  paternal  and  maternal 
grandfathers,  has  wavy  black  hair,  which  curls  quite  a 
bit  in  front;  skin  20,  46,  16,  18.    They  have  eight  children. 


JAMAICAN   FAMILIES.  93 

II  Gen. — I,  9  .  V.  S.,  21  years.    Hair  very  dark  brown,  slic;htly  wavy;  skin 
10,  38,  22.  30. 

2,  cf.  J.  S.    Hair  black,  straight;  skin  like  II  4. 

3,  cf .  F.  S.,  IS  years.    Hair  very  dark  brown,  wavy;  skin  27,  47, 

14,  12. 

4,  9  .  L.  S.,  12  years.     Hair  black,  practically  straight;  skin  23, 

48,  IS.  H-  . 

5,  d^.  A.  S.,  10  years.    Hair  black,  perfectly  straight;  skin  20,  43, 

17.  20. 

6,  9  .  P.  S.,  7  years.    Hair  dark  brown,  practically  straight;  skin 

23,  48,  IS,  14- 

7,  9.  L.  S.,  s  years.    Hair  black,  very  wavy;  skin  27,  48,  13,  12. 

8,  cT.  F.  S.,  2  years.     Hair  very  dark  brown,  wavy;  skin  17,  43, 

15.  2S- 

Pedigree  48.     D.  Family. 

I  Gen. — Two  half-sisters  had  a  very  dark  mother;  skin  say  N  45  per  cent. 

1.  The  father  of  the  first  was  the  illegitimate  son  of  a 
Jew  and  a  woman  with  colored  blood.  She  has  dark 
brown  eyes;  nearly  typical  curly  hair;  skin  2s,  43,  19,  13; 
is  the  wife  of  —  D.,  a  man  with  dark  brown  eyes,  dark- 
brown  straight  hair,  unusually  white  skin  2,  20,  is,  63. 
They  have  seven  children  (H  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6,  7). 

2.  The  other  half-sister,  whose  father  had  skin  say  N 
SO  per  cent,  has  black  kinky  hair;  dark  brown  eyes;  skin 
50,  32,  8,  10.  Her  husband  is  —  P.,  whose  father  was 
colored,  and  whose  mother  was  brunet  with  black  hair 
and  blue  eyes,  the  daughter  of  a  Scotchman  and  a  colored 
woman.  He  has  dark  blue  eyes;  straight,  bright  red  hair; 
extremely  white  skin  o,  19,  10,  71.  He  does  not  even  tan. 
They  have  two  sons  (II  8,  9). 

11  Gen. — I,  d^.  G.  D.,  26  years.     Hair  dark  brown,  fine  and  very  wavy; 
skin  8,  41,  20,  31. 

2,  9  .  V.  D.,  22  years.     Nearly  typical  curly,  dark  brown  hair; 

skin  16,  46,  18,  20. 

3,  9  .  A.  D.,  17  years.    Looks  like  an  East  Indian;  black,  slightly 

wavy  hair;  skin  16,  47,  17,  20. 

4,  cf .  C.  D.,  16  years.    Hair  dark  brown,  straight;  skin  14,  40,  20, 

26. 

5,  9  .  I.  D.,  14  years.    Hair  dark  brown,  rather  curly;  skin  23,  43, 

19.  IS-  . 

6,  9  .  M.  D.,  12  years.     Claimed  by  father  and  mother  as  legiti- 

mate.   Would  be  taken  for  pure  black  girl.    Typical  black 
kinky  hair;  skin  so,  3s,  8,  7.* 

*  The  mother  accounted  for  No.  6's  blackness  by  an  illness  during  pregnancy,  when  the 
medicine  she  used  affected  the  child.  !Miss  Danielson  writes:  "The  dark  child  of  12  aroused 
my  suspicions  as  to  the  morals  of  the  parents.  I  mistrust  the  accuracy  of  their  statements  all 
the  more  as  they  live  'in  the  bush,'  i.e.,  back  from  the  road  in  a  poor  sort  of  house.  Eleven 
persons  occupied  the  three  rooms.  When  I  was  at  the  D.  home,  I  at  first  thought  this  dark 
girl  was  a  servant,  as  many  'coffee-colored'  negroes  had  the  natives  for  serv'ants.  But 
this  family  is  not  of  the  class  who  employ  help.  I  used  the  adjective  kinky  to  describe  her 
hair,  as  I  wanted  to  emphasize  the  contrast  between  it  and  that  of  the  other  members  of 
the  family.  The  black  natives  have  coarse,  kinky,  almost  woolly  hair,  which  is  short  and 
often  braided  into  several  short  pigtails  on  the  sides  of  the  head.  This  dark  girl's  hair 
was  like  that.  I  did  not  come  across  that  type  of  hair  often,  nor  describe  it  in  any  other 
case,  because  my  work  was  not  among  the  black  people." 

7 


94        HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

7,  cf.  H.  D.     Hair  dark  brown,  straight;  skin  24,  45,  16,  15. 

8,  cf.  V.  P.,  3  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown  with 

a  hidden  reddish  tinge  and  very  curly;  skin  20,  47,  18,  15, 

9,  cT.  A.  P.,  gmonths.  Eyes  black ;  hair  brown,  fine ;  skin  25,40,19,16. 

Pedigree  49.     N.  Family. 

(A  colored  family  in  which  only  the  mother  by  her  curly  hair  shows  the 

colored  blood.) 

I  Gen. — Six  children  were  bom  of  a  brown-eyed  man  of  colored  parentage, 
his  skin  being  probably  N  15  to  N  20,  and  of  a  gray-eyed 
woman,  probably  with  a  clear  olive  complexion.  She  was 
the  daughter  of  a  pure  white  man  and  a  very  fair  woman 
with  colored  blood. 

1-4.  Four  children  had  gray  eyes,  light  brown  hair  and 
no  skin  pigmentation. 

5.  One  son  had  brow^n  eyes,  skin  somewhat  pigmented, 
so  that  he  could  not  pass  for  white. 

6.  Another  son,  N.,  who  has  gray  eyes,  Hght  brown  hair, 
and  no  N  skin  pigmentation,  married  an  olive-skinned 
woman,  not  more  than  N  8,  with  dark  brown  hair  that  is 
coarse  and  strongly  inclined  to  curl.  Her  paternal  great- 
great-grandfather  was  a  salve-owner,  and  it  is  supposed  that 
the  original  cross  with  black  was  by  him.  Her  paternal 
grandfather  was  a  dark  man  and  his  wife  colored.  Her 
father  was  colored,  but  her  mother  a  white  woman  with 
blue-gray  eyes  and  brown  hair.  Mrs.  N.'s  two  fair  brothers 
and  four  fair  sisters  pass  for  white,  but  her  dark  sister  and 
three  dark  brothers  can  not.  She  has  had  three  children, 
all  of  whom  are  practically  white. 

II  Gen. — I,  cf .  Eyes  dark  gray;  hair  dark  brown,  straight;  fair  creamy  skin. 

2,  9 .  Eyes  dark  gray;  hair  medium  brown,  inclined  to  be  wavy; 

brunet  skin,  a  little  darker  than  II  i. 

3,  cf^.  2  years.    Eyes  blue  gray;  hair  golden,  slightly  wavy:  very 

fair  skin. 

Pedigree  50.     S.  Family. 

I  Gen. S.,  one  of  a  fraternity  of  six,  three  of  whom  were  fair  and  three 

dark,  has  curly  black  hair  and  skin  probably  N  25.  His 
father  was  colored  and  his  mother  was  a  woman  of  Irish 
and  colored  blood,  whose  photograph  showed  fairly  good 
features  and  straight  hair.  He  married  a  dark  brown- 
eyed,  straight  dark  brown-haired  woman  with  an  ordinary 
brunet  complexion.  She  is  the  daughter  of  a  probably  not 
pure  Jew  (see  Pedigree  45,  I  Generation)  and  a  woman  with 
a  little  colored  blood.  They  have  five  children. 
11  Gen. — I,  9.  Dark  brown,  decidedly  curly  hair;  shows  colored  blood; 
skin  say  N  15,  R  25. 

2,  cf.  Nearly  straight  or  perfectly  straight  hair;  much  tanned, 

brunet  skin ;  a  little  darker  than  his  mother. 

3,  cf*.  Nearly  straight  or  perfectly  straight  hair;  much  tanned, 

brunet  skin ;  a  little  darker  than  his  mother. 


JAMAICAN    FAMILIES.  95 

4,  9.  Nearly  straight  or  perfectly  straight  hair;  much   tanned, 

brunet  skin;  a  little  darker  than  her  mother. 

5,  9  .  Dark  brown,  slightly  curly  hair;  very  dark  brunet  skin,  say 

N  lo;  could  hardly  pass  for  white. 

Pedigree  51.     J.  Family. 

I  Gen. —  —  J.,  a  fair-colored  man  with  straight  black  hair,  and  skin  say 
N  5,  the  son  of  a  Scotchman  and  a  colored  woman,  married 
a  light-colored  woman,  daughter  of  a  white  man  and  a 
black  woman.  She  has  dark  brown  eyes;  very  curly  dark 
brown  hair,  skin  20,  41,  20,  19.  Six  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  of.  D.  J.,  who  has  black,  very  curly  hair,  and  skin  say  N  20  per 
cent,  married  an  Fi  mulatto,  with  nearly  typical  black  hair, 
and  skin  23,  45,  18,  14,  by  whom  he  had  two  daughters  (III 
1,2). 

2,  cf .  Probably  like  II  6. 

3,  9.  Eyes    green-brown;    hair    black,    practically    straight    and 

coarse;  skin  27,  35,  20,  18,  though  badly  tanned.  Her 
husband,  —  W.  (bom  of  a  brown  father  and  a  ver^-  dark 
mother  with  black,  straight  hair),  has  black,  kinky  hair; 
skin  18,  37,  23,  22.  They  have  six  children  living  (III 
3,  4,  5,  6,  7,  8). 

4,  9  .  About  like  II  3. 

5,  9  .  About  like  II  6.     Hair  practically  straight  and  black. 

6,  cT.  E.  J.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown  and  straight;  if 

not  tanned  might  pass  for  white;  skin  5,  30,  23,  42.  His 
wife,  who  is  of  a  large  fraternity,  is  the  daughter  of  a  man 
who  is  "white  by  law,"  son  of  an  Enghshman  and  a  Scotch 
X  colored  mother  (Pedigree  53,  I  Generation),  and  a 
colored  woman  with  w'avy  black  hair,  and  skin  say  N  20 
per  cent.  They  had  five  children,  of  whom  two  are  living 
(III  9,  10).  Mrs.  J.  has  dark  brown  eyes;  hair  dark  brown 
and  practically  straight;  skin  20,  42,  20,  18. 

E.  J.'s  wife  has  eight  brothers  and  sisters.  The  first 
brother  has  skin  say  N  17  per  cent.  A  sister,  C.  F.,  has 
dark  brown  eyes,  very  wavy  dark  browTi  hair;  skin  17,  38, 
24,  21.  Another  sister,  R.  F.,  is  fairer  than  N  12  per  cent. 
A  second  brother  has  skin  say  N  20  per  cent.  A  sister, 
who  has  dark  brown  eyes;  medium  brown,  straight  hair, 
a  little  wavy  about  her  face;  and  skin  12,  41,  20,  27,  mar- 
ried—  F.,  who  has  dark  brown  eyes,  black  straight  hair; 
skin  17,  44,  20,  19.  They  have  eight  children  (III  11,  12, 
13,  14,  15,  16,  17,  18). 

A  fourth  sister,  I.  F.,  who  has  very  dark  brown  hair, 
practically  straight,  and  skin  19,  41,  21,  19,  had,  by  a  man 
darker  than  herself,  one  child,  R.  F. ;  hair  dark  broNNTi,  very 
curly;  skin  18,  45,  20,  17. 

Another  sister  is  about  as  dark  as  N  26  per  cent. 

A  brother,  C.  F.,  who  has  dark  brown  eyes,  black  wavy 
hair,  and  skin  26,  44,  17,  13,  though  his  face  is  much 
darker,  has  a  \\Tlfe  with  medium  brown  eyes,  black  straight 
hair,  and  skin  5,  30,  25,  40.  They  have  six  children  (III 
19,  20,  21,  22,  23,  24). 


96       HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

Ill  Gen. — I,  9  .  E.  J.,  7  years.    Hair  dark  browTi,  curly;  skin  15,  46,  20,  19. 

2,  9 .  R.  J-,  I  year.    Hair  light  brown,  wavy;  skin  18,  45,  17,  20. 

3,  cf .  C.  W.,  17  years.     Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  dark  brown, 

coarse  and  very  curly;  skin  22,  40,  18,  20. 

4,  9  .  Hair  straight  and  black;  skin  said  to  be  like  HI  7. 

5,  cf.  H.  W.,  12  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  almost  black,  coarse, 

straight  hair;  skin  20,  35,  21,  24. 

6,  9  .  R.  W.,  73^  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black,  fine  and 

straight;  skin  29,  46,  13,  12. 

7,  cf.  N.  W.,  5  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  coarse 

and  straight;  skin  35,  44,  12,  9. 

8,  of.  A.  W.,  3  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  slightly 

wavy;  skin  28,  46,  14,  12. 

9,  cf.  E.  J.,  4  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

straight;  skin  18,  41,  20,  21. 

10,  9 .  E.   J.,    I   year.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

slightly  curly;  skin  13,  41,  21,  25. 

11,  cf .  H.  F.,  18  years.     Skin  say  N  20  per  cent. 

12,  cf.  L.  F.,  17  years.     Skin  say  N  25  per  cent. 

13,  cf .  H.  F.,  15  years.    Hair  black,  coarse  and  straight;  skin  25, 

40,  19,  16. 

14,  cf .  L.  F.,  13  years.    Hair  very  dark  brown,  fine  and  straight; 

skin  19,  39,  22,  20. 

15,  9.  I.  F.,  8  years.     Hair  very  dark  browm,  fine  and  straight; 

skin  25,  40,  19,  16. 

16,  cf .  C.  F.,  6  years.    Hair  medium  brown,  fine  and  straight;  skin 

18,  37,  21,  24.  ^ 

17,  cT.  S.  F.,  4  years.     Hair  dark  brown,  fine  and  straight;  skin 

16,  41,  20,  23.        _  _ 

18,  cT.  H.  F.,  2  years.    Hair  medium  brown,  fine  and  straight;  skin 

18,  41,  20,  21. 

19,  9  .  S.  F.,  12  years.     Medium  brov/n  eyes  and  mediimi  brown, 

wavy  hair;  skin  7,  42,  22,  29. 

20,  cf.  C.  F.,  10  years.  Hair  medium  brown,  wa\'y";  skin  6,  32,  26,  36. 

21,  9  .  E .  F. ,  6  years.    Hair  medium  brown,  curly ;  skin  20,40,21,19. 

22,  9  .  I.  F.,  4  years.    Hair  medium  brown,  curly;  skin  20,  41,  22,  17. 

23,  9  .  O.  F.,  2  years.    Hair  light  brown,  wavy;  skin  18,  38,  29,  15. 

24,  cT.  H.  F.,  5  months.    Hair  light  brown,  wavy;  skin  14,  44,  22,  20. 

Pedigree  52.     M.  Family. 

(Consequences  of  repeated  introduction  of  white  blood.) 

IGen. M.,  whose  father  was  a  Jew  and  whose  mother  was  the  daughter 

of  a  Frenchman  and  a  colored  woman,  has  dark  brown 
eyes.  His  hair  is  claimxcd  to  be  black  and  straight,  but  a 
photograph  shows  a  slight  wave;  skin  say  N  8  per  cent. 
His  wife  had  a  paternal  Scotch  grandfather,  and  an  Eng- 
Hsh  maternal  grandfather  whose  wife  was  probably  an  Fi 
mulatto.  Mrs.  M.  has  gray  eyes,  dark  brown,  practically 
straight  hair,  and  though  her  nose  is  rather  broad  might 
pass  for  white;  skin  say  N  8  per  cent.  They  have  three 
daughters. 


JAMAICAN   FAMILIES.  97 

II  Gen. — I,  9  .  S.  M.    Eyes  gray ;  hair  light  brown  (?) ;  skin  say  N  2  per  cent. 
2,  9 .  Z.  M.,   7  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  liair  medium  brown, 

slightly  curly;  hardly  pass  for  white;  skin  8,  51,  21,  20. 
3,9.1  year.     Eyes  blue ;  hair  flaxen ;  no  sign  of  colored  h>lood ; 

skin  2,  33,  24,  41. 

Pedigree  53.     P.  Family. 

I  Gen. — Nine  children  had  a  very  "fair"  father,  —  P.,  whose  parents  were 
practically  white.  He  has  brown  eyes  and  very  curly 
auburn  hair.  Their  mother,  whose  father  was  white  by 
law  (see  Pedigree  51,  II  Generation,  6)  and  whose  mother 
was  pure  black,  has  brown  eyes,  black,  almost  straight 
hair;  skin  22,  42,  17,  19.    She  looks  a  little  like  a  coolie. 

1.  The  first  son,  G.  P.,  who  has  dark  brown  eyes  and 
typical  kink}^  black  hair,  skin  30,  34,  19,  17,  married  a 
light-colored  woman  with  somewhat  negroid  features, 
wavy,  dark  brown  hair,  and  skin  14,  40,  22,  24,  by  whom  he 
had  six  children  (II  i,  2,  3,  4,  5,  6). 

2.  Another  son,  G.  P.,  who  has  very  curly  black  hair, 
and  skin  say  N  25  per  cent,  has  a  wife  whose  father  would 
pass  for  white  and  whose  mother  is  part  Scotch.  She  has 
dark  brown  eyes;  dark  brown,  fairly  curly  hair;  skin  25,  45, 
15,  15.  They  have  three  children  (II  7,  8,  9).  His  wife's 
sister,  E.  S.,  has  very  curly  black  hair;  skin  27,  40,  16,  17. 

3.  A  daughter,  who  has  dark  brown  eyes,  ver\''  curly 
black  hair  and  skin  15,  47,  16,  22,  married  —  L.,  now  dead, 
said  to  have  had  very  wavy,  coarse  browTi  hair,  and  sldn 
say  N  17  per  cent.  His  father  was  part  French,  and  his 
mother,  whose  photograph  looks  very  Uke  a  white  person, 
had  long,  dark  brown,  straight  hair,  and  skin  perhaps  N 
8  per  cent.     Four  children  were  bom  to  them  (II  10,  11, 

12,  13)- 

4.  A  third  son,  H.  P.,  with  curly  hair,  and  sldn  say  N 
20  per  cent,  had  a  wife  who  was  part  Jew  and  part  colored, 
with  black,  straight  hair.  She  died  at  the  birth  of  her 
daughter,  S.  P.,  now  3  years  old;  eyes  dark  bro\\Ti;  hair 
brown,  straight  but  wa\^  on  the  ends;  skin  15,  50,  19,  16. 

5,  9  .  V.  P,    Fairer  than  any  of  her  sibs;  kinky  hair. 

6,  cT.  — P.    Very  like  I  2. 

7-9,  c^cf.  About  same  complexion,  say  N  15. 
II  Gen. — I,  &.  N.  P.,  13  years.    Hair  black  and  slightly  wavy:  skin  35,  42, 
14,  9.    He  is  much  darker  than  either  parent. 

2,  9.1.  P.,  10  years.    Hair  dark  brown,  curly;  skin  18,  39,  20,  23. 

3,  9  •  B.  P.,  8  years.    Hair  dark  browTi,  curly;  skin  15,  32,  25,  28. 

4,  cf .  G.  P.,  6  years.    Hair  medium  brown,  curl}';  skin  15,32,25,  28. 

5,  9  .  V.  P.,  3  years.    Hair  dark  brown,  curly;  skin  15,  43,  21,  21. 

6,  9  .  t  2  years.    Skin  between  II  i  and  II  2. 

7,  9  .  R.  P.,  3  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brouni,  curly; 

skin  29,  42,  17,  12. 

8,  cf.  E.  P.,  2  years.    Eyes  gray,  hair  bright  red,*  kinky;  a  creamy 

white  skin  7,  41,  23,  29. 

*  The  mother  explains  his  red  hair  by  stating  that,  when  pregnant,  she  used  to  make 
fun  of  a  red-haired  person. 


98       HEREDITY   OF    SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

9,  cf .  G.  P.,  2  months.  Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  indefinite,  probably- 
dark  brown  and  curly;  skin  19,  44,  15,  22,  but  not  fully 
pigmented  yet. 

10,  cf .  V.  L.,  10  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  slightly 

wavy;  skin  13,  43,  20,  24.  _ 

11,  cf .  G.  L.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black,  practically  straight  and 

coarse;  looks  a  little  like  a  coolie;  skin  20,  49,  17,  14. 

12,  13.  t  Inf.    Skin  fairer  than  II  10. 

Pedigree  54.     B.  Family. 

I  Gen. B.,  the  illegitimate  son  of  a  colored  man  and  English  woman, 

has  gray  eyes,  and  skin  say  N  12  per  cent.  His  wife  is 
the  daughter  of  a  man  whose  father  was  English  and  whose 
mother  was  colored,  and  a  woman  whose  father  was  Eng- 
lish and  whose  mother  was  black.  She  has  medium  brown 
eyes;  very  curly,  dark  brown  hair;  skin  16,  43,  21,  20.  Three 
of  their  eight  children  are  living. 
II  Gen. — I,  cf.  B.  B.    Blue  eyes;  very  fair. 

2,  cf.  N.  B.,  10  years.    Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

curly;  skin  12,  36,  22,  30. 

3,  9  .  M.  B.,  7  years.    Eyes  medium  or  greenish -brown ;  hair  me- 

dium brown,  curly;  skin  8,  35,  23,  34. 

4,  d^.  J.  B.,  t  inf.    Hair  black;  skin  darker  than  his  mother's. 

5,  cf .  H.  B.,  t  I  year.    Skin  say  N  12. 

6,  9  .  E.  B.,  3  years.    Eyes  light  brown  or  hazel;  hair  light  brown, 

very  wavy;  skin  16,  43,  21,  20. 

7,  8,  cT  d^ .  Twins,  f  3  months.   One  fairer  than  the  other,  the  darker 

say  N  15. 

Pedigree  55.     S.  Family. 

I  Gen. — Seven  children  were  born  of  —  S.,  whose  father  was  white  and  whose 
mother  was  colored.  He  had  "good"  hair,  and  skin  say 
N  5 ;  he  married  the  daughter  of  a  white  man  and  a  colored 
woman.  She  was  a  little  darker  than  her  husband  and  had 
slightly  wavy  hair. 

I.  A  daughter  with  medium  brown  eyes;  medium  brown, 
coarse,  wavy  hair;  skin  5,  45,  20,  30;  married  —  R.,  son 
of  a  possibly  pure  white  man  and  a  dark  woman.  He  has 
black,  kinky  hair;  skin  20,  45,  18,  17.  They  have  five 
children  (II  i,  2,  3,  4,  5). 

2-4.  Three  daughters  have  long,  black  straight  hair  and 
skin  say  N  5. 

5-6.  One  son  and  daughter  have  skin  say  N  12. 

7.  Another  son,  —  S.,  who  has  medium  brown  eyes, 
dark  brown,  slightly  curly  hair,  and  skin  5,  28,  21,  46, 
married  a  woman  both  of  whose  grandfathers  were  white 
and  both  grandmothers  black.  Her  parents  had  skin  say 
N  30,  the  father  having  kinky  black  hair,  but  the  mother 
straighter  and  fairer  hair.  Mrs,  S.  has  dark  brown  eyes, 
black,  almost  kinky  hair,  and  skin  20,  20,  41,  19.  They 
have  seven  children  (II  6,  7,  8,  9,  10,  11,  12).  Mrs.  S. 
has  a  brother  about  her  own  color,  another  a  little  lighter, 
skin  say  N  15 ;  another  with  kinky  hair,  and  skin  say  N  30; 
and  a  sister  with  light  brown,  wavy  hair,  and  skin  say  N  10. 


JAMAICAN    FAMILIES.  99 

11  Gen. — I,  9.  I.  R.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  wav>';  skin  22, 

42,  19.  17- 

2,  9  .  E.  R.,  12  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  slightly 

wavy;  skin  21,  44,  20,  15. 

3,  9.  I.  R.,  10  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  light  brown,  very 

curly;  skin  11,  40,  23,  26. 

4,  cf.  L.  R.,  8  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brov^ii,  very 

curly;  skin  15,  40,  24,  21. 

5,  cf .  S.  R.,  II  months.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

very  wavy;  skin  11,  35,  23,  31. 

6,  9  .  I.  S.,  15  years.    Eyes  medium  brown,  hair  dark  brown,  curly; 

skin  21,  40,  20,  19. 

7,  9  .  L.  S.,  13  years.    Eyes  black;  hair  medium  brown,  very  curly; 

skin  17,  38,  22,  23. 

8,  cf .  W.  S.,   12  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black,  straight; 

skin  19,  40,  20,  21. 

9,  cf .  D.  S.,  10  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  light  brown,  very 

curly;  skin  14,  35,  25,  26. 

10,  9.  M.  S.,  9  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  light  brown,  very 

curly;  skin  12,  36,  27,  25. 

11,  cf .  C.  S.,  7  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  slightly 

curly;  skin  16,  36,  26,  22. 

12,  cf .  V.  S.,  4  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  nearly 

straight;  skin  17,  38,  23,  22. 

Pedigree  56.     H.  Family. 

I  Gen. — Three  children  whose  paternal  grandfather  was  the  son  of  a  white 
man  and  a  colored  woman,  and  whose  paternal  grand- 
mother was  a  blue-eyed  Irish  woman,  had  a  fair-skinned, 
gray-eyed  father,  —  H.,  and  a  very  dark  mother  called 
sambo  with  black,  soft  hair,  the  daughter  of  a  Scotch- 
man ( ?)  and  a  colored  woman. 

1.  The  son,  —  H.,  who  had  medium  browTi  eyes,  very 
curly  but  not  kinky  black  hair,  skin  25,  35,  18,  22,  married 
a  woman  with  medium  brown  eyes,  ver}'  wav>'  or  crimpy 
dark  brown  hair,  white  skin  and  pink  cheeks,  only  the 
crimp  in  her  hair  denoting  her  colored  blood;  skin  o,  28. 
20,  52.  Her  father,  whose  photograph  looks  like  that  of  a 
white  man,  had  dark  brown  eyes;  dark  browTi,  straight 
hair;  skin  say  N  5;  while  her  mother,  the  daughter  of  a 
Jew  and  grand-daughter  of  a  Scotchman,  in  the  photograph 
shows  slightly  negro  features;  has  dark  bro^vn  wavy  hair; 
skin  like  her  daughter's.     They  have  two  boys  (II  i,  2). 

2.  A  daughter,  who  has  light  brown  eyes,  very  curly, 
dark  brown  hair,  a  little  more  kink}^  than  that  of  her 
brothers,  skin  18,  42,  20,  20,  married  —  G.,  brother  of  the 
wife  of  I  I.  He  has  dark  brown  eyes:  hair  probably  a  little 
wa\y  or  curly,  as  it  was  called  "not  good;"  skin  a  little 
darker  than  that  of  his  sister.  They  have  four  children 
(11  3,  4.  5.  6). 

—  G.,  has  a  brother  with  fine  straight  hair,  skin  said  to 
be  N  5.  He  married  a  brown-skinned  woman,  and  their 
children  are  dark,  with  long,  straight  hair. 

3.  Another  daughter  is  said  to  have  dark  bro\\'n  eyes; 
"nice"  hair,  i.e.,  fine  and  comparatively  straight;  skin 
fairer  than  N  18. 


100     HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

II  Gen. — I,  cf .  N.  H.,  5  years.     Eyes  medmm  brown;  hair  dark  brown, 
wavy;  skin  12,  44,  25,  19. 

2,  cf .  H.  H.,  3  years.    Eyes  medium  browTi;  hair  flaxen  and  very 

curly;  skin  10,  43,  24,  23. 

3,  cf .  A.  G.,  9  years.    Eyes  gray-brown;  hair  medium  brown,  very 

curly;  skin  12,  37,  20,  31. 

4,  cf .  E.  G.,  5  years.     Eyes  greenish  and  crossed;  hair  medium 

brown,  very  ciu"ly;  freckled  skin  5,  30,  21,  44. 

5,  9  .  E.  G.,  4  years.    Hair  black,  wavy;  skin  say  N  25,  darkest  in 

the  family.    Absent. 

6,  cf .  C.  G.,  3  years.    Eyes  medium  brown:  hair  very  light  yel- 

low, curly;  skin  9,  44,  25,  22. 

Pedigree  57.    A.  Family. 

I  Gen. — D.  A.,  whose  father  was  part  Jew  and  whose  mother  had  skin  say 
N  20,  has  skin  say  N  16.  His  wife,  the  daughter  of  a 
white  man  and  a  dark  woman,  has  dark  brown  eyes;  very 
curly,  dark  brown  hair;  a  somewhat  freckled  skin,  12,  41, 

24,  23.    They  have  seven  children,  all  of  whom  have  dark 
brown  eyes. 

II  Gen. — I,  9  .  D,  A.,  13  years.    Hair  dark  brown,  very  wavy;  skin  13,  40, 
23,  24. 

2,  9  .  E.  A.,  II  years.    Hair  dark  brown,  very  curly;  skin  15,  42, 

23,  20. 

3,  cf .  A.  A.,  9  years.     Hair  dark  brown,  very  curly;  skin  13,  37, 

25.  25. 

4,  9  .  I.  A.,  6  years.    Hair  dark  brown,  very  curly;  skin  7,  40,  23,  30. 

5,  cf .  V.  A.,  4  years.     Hair  reddish- brown,  very  slightly  wavy; 

skin  7,  39,  24,  30.  _ 

6,  cf .  E.  A.,  3  years.    Hair  light  brown,  golden  on  the  wavy  ends; 

skin  13,  38,  22,  27.  _ 

7,  9  .  E.  A.,  16  months.    Hair  light  brown,  slightly  wavy;  skin  7, 

35.  25,  33. 

Pedigree  58.     D.  Family. 

(This  pedigree  is  interesting  because  of  the  variety  of  complexions  among  the 
children,  though  no  definite  records  could  be  taken.) 

I  Gen. — A  colored  man  with  kinky  black  hair,  skin  N  20  to  25,  is  the  son 
of  a  colored  man  of  similar  skin  whose  father  was  a  Jew 
and  whose  mother  was  black,  and  of  a  woman  with  skin  a 
little  darker  than  that  of  her  husband.  He  married  a 
practically  white  woman,  as  both  her  father  and  her  m^other 
were  very  "near  to  white."  She  has  dark  brown  eyes, 
reddish-brown  straight  hair,  slightly  freckled,  very  white 
skin.  They  have  four  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  cf .  Skin  color  half-way  between  that  of  his  father  and  that  of 
his  mother. 

2,  9  •  Brown  eyes;  very  curly  flaxen  hair;  fair  white  skin  like  her 

mother's. 

3,  9.  Brown  eyes;  dark  brown,  curly  hair;  the  darkest  in  the 

family,  being  plainly  darker  than  her  father. 

4,  Like  its  mother. 


JAMAICAN   FAMILIES.  101 

Pedigree  59.    M.  Family. 

I  Gen. — F.  A.  M.,  the  son  of  a  very  fair  colored  man  and  a  black  woman, 
has  dark  brown  eyes,  black  wavy,  almost  kinky,  hair, 
yellow-brown  skin,  say  N  15.  His  ^^^fe,  the  daughter  of  a 
man  darker  than  she  and  a  woman  with  skin  say  N  8,  has 
hazel  or  green-browTi  eyes;  black,  straight  hair;  would  pass 
for  wliite  anywhere  but  in  Jamaica ;  skin  5 ,  35,  27,  33.  They 
have  seven  children.  She  has  a  sister  with  an  olive  com- 
plexion, say  N  8,  and  two  brothers  with  straight  brown 
hair;  respectively,  N  10  and  N  6. 
II  Gen. — I,  9.  A.  M.,  18  years.  Eyes  medium  brown;  very  curly,  almost 
kink^',  medium-brown  hair;  olive  skin,  8,  40,  23,  29. 

2,  9.  W.  M.,   17  years.     Eyes  gray-brown  or  hazel,  something 

like  her  mother's;  very  dark  brown,  very  curly  hair;  skin 
10,  42,  21,  27. 

3,  9  .  D.  M.,  15  years.    Like  II  6. 

4,  cf .  H.  M.,  14  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  very 

curly;  skin  17,  43,  20,  20. 

5,  9  .  M.  M.,  12  3'ears.     Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  dark  brown, 

very  ciu-ly;  sldn  18,  46,  20,  16. 

6,  cf .  L.  M.,  9  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  medium  browTi,  typically 

curly  hair;  skin  15,  42,  23,  20. 

7,  cf .  A.  M.,  8  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

wavy;  skin  14,  44,  21,  21. 

Pedigree  60.     M.  Family. 

I  Gen. — Eleven  children  were  bom  of  a  pure  Scotch,  blue-eyed  father  and 
a  black  mother. 

I.  A  son,  with  sldn  say  N  23,  married  a  woman  whose 
father  was  of  white  and  colored  ancestry,  had  blue  eyes 
and  a  white  skin,  and  whose  mother,  an  Fi  mulatto,  had 
black  wa\^  hair.  Mrs.  M.  has  medium  brown  eyes;  black, 
wavy  hair;  skin  16,  44,  21,  19.  They  have  three  children 
(III,  2,3). 

2-6.  A  daughter  had  "bad"  hair,  i.e.,  kinky  and  coarse; 
skin  say  N  15.  Three  others  had  black  or  dark  brown, 
wavy  hair;  skin  say  N  25.  A  fifth  had  "bad"  hair,  and 
was  darker  than  N  25. 

7-1 1.  Five  sons,  one  at  least  of  whom  had  "nice"  hair, 
were  very  dark. 
II  Geti. — I,  (^ .  R.  Al.,  16  years.   Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  very  wavy,  dark 
brown;  very  fair  when  not  tanned;  skin  3,  32,  23,  42. 

2,  9.  R-    M.,    14  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark   brown, 

straight,  but  with  a  little  wave  in  it;  skin  23,  43,  19,  15. 

3,  9  .  H.  M.,  12  years.     Eyes  green;  hair  mediiun  brown,  very 

cturly,  almost  kinky;  somewhat  freckled  and  tanned  skin, 
15.  34-  23,  28. 

Pedigree  Oi.     J.  Family. 

I  Gen. J.,  the  son  of  a  man  whose  skin  was  fairer  than  N  13,  and  of  a 

woman  with  skin  say  N  30,  has  dark  brown  eyes;  black, 
very  curly,  almost  kinky  hair;  skin  30,  40,  17,  13.     His 


102     HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

wife  is  the  daughter  of  a  man  part  Jew  and  part  colored 
who  had  black,  straight  hair,  skin  darker  than  N  13,  and 
of  a  woman  of  Portuguese  and  colored  descent  who  was 
fairer  than  her  daughter.  Mrs.  J.  has  dark  bro^;\Ti  eyes; 
black,  straight  hair;  skin  13,  36,  21,  30.  They  have  three 
children. 
II  Gen. — I,  9  .  G.  J.,  14  years.  Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black,  straight,  but 
a  little  wavy  about  her  face;  skin  23,  40,  20,  17. 

2,  9  .  L.  J.,   13  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  black,  straight; 

skin  20,  40,  20,  20. 

3,  cf .  R.  J.,  2  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  fine, 

curly,  but  not  kinky;  skin  35,  37,  13,  15. 

Pedigree  62.     C.  Family. 

I  Gen. C,   the  son  of  a  light-colored  man  with  skin  say  N  18  and  a 

lighter-colored  woman,  the  daughter  of  a  Jew  and  a  black 
woman,  has  dark  brown  eyes,  black,  very  curly,  almost 
kinky  hair,  skin  20,  38,  22,  20.  He  married  a  woman  who 
is  the  daughter  of  a  Jew  and  a  colored  woman  with  skin 
darker  than  her  daughter's.  Mrs.  C.  has  dark  brown  eyes, 
black  wavy  hair,  skin  12,  40,  21,  27.  They  have  eight 
children. 
II  Gen. — I,  9  .  E.  C.    Hair  light  brown,  wavy;  skin  say  N  12. 

2,  9  .  L.  C,  16  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  curly; 

skin  12,  42,  21,  25. 

3,  cf .  D.  C,  14  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

coarse,  and  wa\'y;  skin  21,  37,  20,  22. 

4,  cf .  R.  C,  13  years.    Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  medium  brown, 

wavy;  skin  11,  38,  23,  28. 

5,  9  .  E.  C,  II  years.     Hair  black,  straight;  the  darkest  in  the 

family;  "like  her  father,"  who  is  much  tanned. 

6,  cf .  H.  C,  9  years.    Eyes  medium  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  curly; 

skin  23,  34,  20,  23. 

7,  9  .  I.  C,  6  years.     Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  very  dark  brown, 

slightly  wavy;  skin  25,  37,  19,  19. 

8,  cf .  B.  C.,  4  years.    Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  v/avy; 

skin  27,  40,  18,  15. 

III.  LOUISIANIAN  FAMILIES. 
(Abridged  field  notes  of  Susan  K.  Gillean,  Eugenics  Record  Ofl&ce.) 

Pedigree  i.     P.  Family. 

I  Gen. P.,  an  Fi  mulatto,  the  illegitimate  son  of  a  white  man,  thought 

to  have  had  dark  eyes  and  hair,  and  of  a  full-blooded 
negress,  is  a  well-built  fellow  with  rather  thick  lips,  flat 
nose,  dark  eyes,  kinky  hair,  skin  30,  32,  13,  25.  His  wife, 
an  Fi  mulatto,  the  illegitimate  daughter  of  a  white  man 
and  a  full-blooded  negress  of  South  Carolina,  has  rather 
small  feet  and  hands;  a  well-shaped,  straight,  narrow  nose; 
lips  a  little  thick;  eyes  light  brown  and  close  together; 
curly  hair;  skin  25,  21,  13,  41.     They  have  ten  children. 


LOUISIANIAN    FAMILIES.  103 

11  Gen. — I,   9.  I.  P.  [W.].    Noseflat;lips  thick;  hair  curly;  skin  30,  32,  13,  25. 

2,  9  .  S.  P.  [W.].     Nose  well  shai^ed;  Hps  thick;  eyes  Hght  brown 

and  close  together;  hair  curly;  skin  16,  32,  12,  40. 

3,  cT.  V.   P.     Nose  well  shaped;  hps  rather  thick;  eyes  brown; 

hair  curly;  skin  16,  30,  12,  42. 

4,  9.  M.  P.     Nose  flat;  mouth  good;  lips  not  very  thick;  eyes 

light  brown;  hair  curly;  skin  26,  30,  12,  32. 

5,  cf .  P.  P.     Possibly  like  II  4.     Absent. 

6,  9.  V.  P.     Nose  good;  lips  rather  thick;  hands  and  feet  small; 

hair  curly;  skin  23,  32,  12,  33. 

7,  d^,  P.  P.    Nose  flat;  lips  thick;  eyes  dark;  hair  kinky;  skin  33, 

32,  12,  23. 

8,  cT.  A.  P.     Nose  flat;  lips  rather  thick;  hair  curly;  skin  35,  32, 

12,  21. 

9,  cf .  I.  P.     Nose  flat;  hair  kinky;  skin  29,  32,  12,  27. 
10,  c^.  I  week  old. 

Pedigree  2.     F.  Family. 

I  Gen. — B.  F.,  70  years,  a  full-blooded  negro  with  fairly  good  nose,  thick 
lips,  hair  kinky,  skin  43,  30,  12,  15;  married  an  F2  mulatto, 
as  both  of  her  parents  were  illegitimate  Fi  mulattoes  and 
both  of  her  grandfathers  were  white.  She  has  a  broad 
face;  good  nose;  thick  lips;  wa\y,  white  hair;  skin  10,  30, 
12,  48.  They  have  two  children. 
II  Gen. — I,  9  .  E.  F.  [C.].  Face  broad;  good  nose;  hps  thick;  hair  woolly; 
skin  39,  12,  32,  17. 
2,  cf .  W.  F.  Head  long;  face  rather  narrow;  nose  flat;  lips  thick; 
hair  woolly;  a  typical  negro;  skin  45,  12,  32,  11. 

Pedigree  3.     W.  Family. 

I  Gen. — S.  W.,  a  Jew  with  dark  eyes  and  hair,  had  an  illegitimate  son  by  a 
full-blooded   negress  with  a  wide,   flat   nose,   thick   lips, 
woolly  hair,  skin  45,  32,  13,  10. 
II  Gen. — I,  cf .  S.  W.    Nose  broad  and  flat;  eyes  round  and  close  together; 
lips  thick;  kinky  hair;  skin  25,  32,  13,  30. 

Pedigree  4.     W.  Family. 

I  Gen. — A  white  man,  a  brunet  with  straight  hair,  had,  by  a  negress  with 
a  broad,  flat  nose,  thick  lips,  woolly  hair,  skin  40,  32,  13. 
15,  one  daughter. 
II  Gen. — I,  9  .  C.  W.    Nose  and  mouth  good;  eyes  light  brown;  hair  kinky; 
skin  20,  32,  13,  35. 

Pedigree  5.     S.  Family. 

I  Gen. — M.  S.  An  illegitimate  Fi  mulatto,  the  daughter  of  a  white  man  and 
a  full-blooded  negress,  has  not  a  negroid  nose,  but  one  u-ith 
the  muscles  tight  or  drawn  at  the  base,  rather  thick  lips, 
crinkly,  wavy  white  hair,  skin  20,  30,  12,  38.  By  a  brunet 
white  man  she  had  an  illegitimate  daughter,  who  has  nasal 
muscles  similar  to  her  mother's,  thin  lij^s,  very  curly  hair, 
skin  15,  30,  12,  43.  By  a  lawful  marriage  to  a  man  with 
blue  eyes  and  light  hair,  said  to  be  white  by  some,  by  others 
to  have  colored  blood,  she  had  a  daughter  (II  i),  with  not 
a  single  negroid  feature. 


104     HEREDITY   OF   SKIN    COLOR   IN   NEGRO-WHITE   CROSSES. 

II  Gen. — I,  9  .  Eyes  dark  brown;  hair  dark  brown,  very  wavy;  skin  3,32, 
12,  53;  would  pass  for  white  anywhere.  She  has  four 
children  (III  i,  2,  3,  4),  whose  natural  father  is  a  white 
man  with  a  high,  large  nose;  blue  eyes;  red  hair.  All  the 
children  would  pass  for  white. 
Ill  Gett. — I,  cf .  Good  nose  and  mouth;  blue  eyes;  almost  straight  hair. 

2,  cf.  Large  nose;  lips  thicker  than  those  of  III  i;  curly  brown 

hair;  huge  dark  brown  freckles. 

3,  9.  Like  III  2. 

4,  9  .  Large,  high  nose;  lips  very  red  and  a  little  thick;  eyes  blue; 

hair  red  and  curly;  skin  fair  but  freckled. 

Pedigree  6.     T.  Family. 

I  Gen. — Three  children,  the  illegitimate  offspring  of  a  pure  white  man  with 
dark  eyes  and  dark,  straight  hair,  skin  said  to  be  red 
(evidently  he  was  a  planter  and  his  skin  was  red  from  ex- 
posure), and  a  negress  with  typical  negro  features,  flat 
nose,  thick  lips,  woolly,  kinky  hair,  skin  70,  28.5,  i,  0.5. 

1.  A  daughter,  S.  T.,  who  has  a  flat  nose,  one  eye  crossed, 
crinkly  but  not  kinky  hair,  skin  29,  32,  13,  26,  had,  by  a 
white  man,  —  B.,  with  blue  eyes  and  light  brown  straight 
hair,  two  illegitimate  children  (II  i,  2). 

2.  A  second  daughter,  R.  T.,  has  a  flat  nose,  rather  thick 
lips;  kinky  hair;  skin  20,  32,  13,  35. 

3.  A  son,  H.  T.,  has  a  flat  nose,  extremely  flat  between 
the  eyes;  rather  thick  lips;  light  brown  eyes;  very  kinky 
hair;  skin  20,  32,  13,  35. 

II  Gen. — I,  cf.  C.  B.,  12  years.     Nose  good;  eyes  blue;  hair  straight;  skin 
10,  32,  13,  45. 
2,  cf .  R.  B.,  10  years.     Nose  good;  mouth  shaped  like  a  negro's; 
eyes  blue;  hair  slightly  wavy;  skin  10,  32,  13,  45. 


APPENDIX  B. 

SOCIAL  DATA  CONCERNING  MISCEGENATION. 

(a)  Bermuda. 

The  brown-skinned  negro  is  the  characteristic  negro  of  Bermuda.  The 
black-skinned  negroes  in  Bermuda  are  almost  entirely  the  result  of  imported 
labor.  When  the  government  was  building  its  dry  dock  and  fixing  up  its 
naval  station,  it  brought  many  West  Indian  negroes  up  to  work  in  Bermuda. 
Some  of  them  settled  there  and  intermarried  with  the  brown-skinned  people. 
The  result  is  that  there  are  more  apparently  "full  black  "  people  in  the  present 
generation  than  there  were  in  the  past.  Both  the  white  and  the  colored  people 
regret  this  importation,  not  only  for  its  effect  upon  the  skin  color,  but  espe- 
cially because  it  has  introduced  a  more  lawless  element.  White  men  have 
told  me  that  formerly  it  was  almost  absolutely  safe  for  women  to  be  out  alone 
in  the  evening.  Now  they  do  not  consider  it  quite  so  safe  because  "those 
West  Indian  fellows"  have  made  several  disturbances.  *  *  *  The  white 
Bermudians  have  explained  the  brown  skins  of  their  colored  people  by  the 
common  practice  of  the  white  masters  to  have  children  by  their  slaves.  In 
such  a  small  territor}%  where  the  number  of  slaves  kept  was  comparatively 
small,  this  practice  would  relatively  soon  affect  the  whole  colored  population. 
In  Jamaica,  on  the  other  hand,  where  the  plantations  demanded  large  num- 
bers of  slaves,  the  same  practice  of  concubinage  would  affect  a  smaller  ntmiber. 
This  smaller  nimiber,  being  segregated,  would  form  that  mixed  "colored" 
class  who  are  so  proud  of  their  white  blood.  For  the  pure  blacks,  after  eman- 
cipation, retired  to  the  mountains  and  for  a  long  time  kept  very  much  to 
themselves.  *  *  *  The  native  Bermudians  consider  themselves,  and  are 
truly,  much  superior  to  the  Jamaicans. — Florence  H.  Danielson. 

(6)  Jamaica. 

Mr.  G.  is  a  light  brown  colored  man,  interested  in  science  and  philosophy, 
who  gave  Miss  Danielson  many  details.  His  father  was  a  strict  mulatto  and 
his  mother  pure  white,  from  Ireland,  who  was  brought  up  by  a  colored  family 
after  the  death  of  her  father  (who  was  in  the  troops)  from  fever.  He  has  a 
very  fair  sister  who  married  a  white  man,  and  one  darker  sister,  deceased. 
Mr.  G.  married  a  swarthy-complexioned  woman  \\ath  some  Carib  blood,  and 
they  have  a  son  whose  skin  is  very  fair  and  who  worked  three  years  in  New 
York  as  a  white  man.  When  his  father  wrote  that  he  was  coming  to  America 
to  see  him  he  replied :  ' '  Please  don't  come,  father ;  you  vAW  spoil  all  my  chances 
up  here!"  So,  Mr.  G.  did  not  go.  As  a  result  of  domestic  troubles  Mr.  G. 
left  his  wife  and,  as  he  said,  "got  wild."  He  had  two  children  by  an  almost 
pure  black  woman,  a  mangro.  Her  father  was  pure  black  and  her  mother 
sambo.    Both  children  are  of  a  rich  brown  sambo  color,  vn\h.  curly  negro  hair. 

Mrs.  B.  is  a  little  fairer  than  the  average  mulatto.  She  married  an 
EngHshman,  has  lived  in  England,  has  been  several  times  to  New  York,  and 
has  considerable  money.  Her  two  sons  are  about  8  to  lo  per  cent  N  and  might 
pass  for  white  in  America;  they  were  educated  in  good  schools  in  England, 

105 


106     HEREDITY   OF   SKIN   COLOR   IN    NEGRO-WHITE    CROSSES. 

and  are  intelligent  and  mature  for  their  years.    The  daughter,  about  six  years 
old,  has  fluffy,  wavy  hair  and  skin  with  15  to  20  per  cent  N.    Mrs.  B.  said: 

I  understand  you  have  separate  cars  and  churches  for  colored  people.  An  American 
seems  to  think  he  will  become  black  if  he  sits  beside  a  colored  person.  I  can  understand 
why  they  might  object  to  marrying  a  colored  person,  for  then  it  is  a  matter  of  blood,  but 
I  don't  see  how  contact  with  them  can  hurt  anything.  A  man  doesn't  marry  for  skin  color; 
he  marries  someone  equal  in  mental  ability,  and  a  white  man  may  find  that  in  a  colored 
woman  as  well  as  in  a  white. 

An  olive-skinned  man,  with  a  brown  wife,  five  children,  and  a  neat, 
well-kept  home  in  a  quiet  country  place,  says : 

I've  often  said  I'd  change  the  British  flag  for  the  American  flag  any  day.  In  America 
they  are  prejudiced  against  all  colored  people.  You  may  be  a  millionaire,  but  if  you're 
colored  you  can't  marry  into  white  families  or  associate  with  them.  Here  with  the  English, 
if  you  are  colored  and  have  money  you  are  all  right,  they  associate  with  you;  but  if  you 
haven't  money  you  are  nowhere.  The  English  aren't  as  honest  as  the  Americans,  for  they 
(English)  hate  the  color  just  the  same  and  only  accept  it  for  the  money.  So  I'd  rather  be 
under  the  American  flag,  for  I  don't  want  to  mingle  with  the  white  people.  I  like  my  own 
race  and  want  to  live  with  my  own  people. 

A  brown  woman,  with  a  brown  husband,  in  a  neat,  well-furnished  home, 
says:    "I  wouldn't  change  my  race;  I'm  not  ashamed  of  my  color!" 

(c)  Louisiana. 
To  the  field  worker,  from  a  friend : 

I  have  thought  a  good  deal  about  the  subject  of  which  you  write  and  have  myself 
been  interested  in  it;  but  I  do  think  it  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  pursuits  and  for  the  reason 
that  the  data  are  so  obscure,  are  not  on  record  anywhere,  and  the  people  themselves  are 
inaccurate  and  frequently  ignorant.  There  are  comparatively  few  pure  Africans  and  when 
there  is  an  admixture  it  is  next  to  impossible,  I  find,  to  discover  the  exact  proportions  of  the 
kinds  of  blood  involved,  both  because  of  lack  of  knowledge  and  untruthfulness. 

I  have  had  in  my  employ  at  diflferent  times  notable  examples  in  which  I  was  greatly 
interested.  One,  a  handsome  mulatto,  was  notable  for  her  fine  contour  and  color,  the  daugh- 
ter of  two  comely  mulattoes,  but  of  the  blood  of  the  parents  I  know  nothing.  I  always  sus- 
pected Indian  blood  in  the  mother  because  of  her  high  cheek  bones  and  straight  bearing, 
but  back  of  her  is  all  guesswork  excepting  the  single  fact  of  a  probable  white  father  (or  else 
mulatto  parents).  This  mother,  who  was  even  handsomer  than  her  daughter,  married,  late 
in  life,  a  pure  African  and  had  a  son  who  was  a  little  black  crow  in  color  like  his  coal-black 
father,  and  who  displayed  all  the  wretched  traits  of  a  poor  paternal  line,  nearly  breaking 
the  hearts  of  his  mother  and  half-sister. 

Another — Rose,  we'll  say — was  the  daughter  of  my  black  cook,  her  father  a  white 
youth,  both  absurdly  young  at  the  time,  so  the  mother  told  me.  I  met  Rose,  a  handsome 
mulatto  with  fairly  good  hair,  after  her  marriage  to  a  very  light  blue-eyed  mulatto  with 
kinky  hair.  Their  children  were  all  very  light,  almost  white,  but  with  the  close-clinging 
reddish  negro  wool — all  excepting  a  very  handsome  daughter  who  was  darker  but  whose 
lovely  brown  limp  curls  hung  low  over  her  shoulders.  She  was  altogether  superior  as  a 
type  to  her  brothers,  and  the  mother  said  to  me  one  day,  "  Mrs.  S.,  I  wouldn't  take  anything 
for  Ellen's  dark  skin.  If  she  had  her  brothers'  light  skin  with  that  fine  hair,  people  wouldn't 
believe  I  was  an  honest  woman.  You  see,  there's  just  so  much  negro  blood  in  these  children 
and  it's  hound  to  show  one  way  or  another.  It's  either  a  kinky-haired  pale  face  or  a  brown 
girl  with  white  folk's  hair." 


Plate  i. 

Fig.  I.  Part  of  W.  family,  Bermuda  pedigree  6,  including  a  dark  grandmother 

(II  I  (MM)),  a  black  mother  (III  i  (M))  who  by  an  equally  black 

man  had  a  black  daughter  (IV  i)  and  by  a  white  man  had  a  mulatto 

child  (IV  2). 
Fig.  2.  Part  of  W.  family,  pedigree  13,  including  a  medium-colored  mother 

and  six  of  her  seven  children  by  a  white  man.    Also,  a  first  cousin 

(III  6)  of  the  children. 
Fig.  3.  Part  of  the  G.  and  O.  family,  pedigree  21,  including  a  nearly  white 

man  [I  3  (F)],  his  medium-colored  wife  [I  3  (M)]  and  five  of  their 

seven  children. 


II,  I  {MW 


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HEREDITY  OF  SKIN  COLOR 


PLATE  1 


Plate  2. 

Fig.  4.  Part  of  the  G.  and  O.  family,  pedigree  21,  including  a  medium-colored 
man  [I  i(MF),  brother  to  Fig.  3,  I  3(F)],  his  light-colored  wife 
I  I  (MM),  five  of  their  eight  children  and  the  light-colored  child  of 
one  of  them,  i.e.,  of  II  5(M). 

Fig.  5.  Part  of  the  B.  family,  pedigree  25,  including  a  light-colored  man, 
I  2(F),  and  his  light  wife,  I  2(M),  and  three  of  their  four  children. 

Fig.  6.  Part  of  the  B.  family,  pedigree  25,  including  a  practically  white 
father,  I  l(F),  light-colored  mother  and  their  three  children. 


II. I  '?^„ 


11.  n 


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HEREDITY  or  SKIN  COLOR 


PLATE  2 


Plate  3. 

Fig.  7.     Wife  of  F.  O.  in  pedigree  23,  and  mother  of  I  i(M),  in  Fig.  8,  and 

grandmother  of  the  children  in  Fig.  8. 
Fig.  8.     Part  of  J.  family,  pedigree   23,  comprising  the  mother,  I   i(M), 

mentioned  in  the  description  of  Fig.  7,  her  husband  [I  i(F)].  a 

Hght-colored  man,  and  all  of  their  seven  surviving  children. 
Fig.  9.     Light  brown  mother  of  the  P.  family,  pedigree  26,  and  her  youngest 

child. 
Fig.  10.  The  four  oldest  children  of  pedigree  26,  from  the  mother  shown  in 

Fig.  9  and  a  light-colored  man. 


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and  her  youngest 


n  of  pedigree  26,  from  the  mother  shown 


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HEREDITY  OF  SKIN  COLOR 


PLATE  3 


Plate  4. 

Fig.  II.  Part  of  Jamaica  pedigree  9,  the  M.  family,  showing  light-colored 
father,  II  i(F),  medium-colored  mother,  II  i(M),  and  their 
two  (lighter-skinned)  children. 

Fig.  12.  Part  of  Bermuda  pedigree  29,  F.  family,  including  a  white-skinned 
man  of  colored  origin,  No.  4  of  the  figure  and  II  6  of  the  pedigree, 
his  white-skinned  wife,  No.  5  (II  6)  and  their  children:  III  13 
(No.  7),  III  15  (No.  8),  III  16  (No.  17),  III  17  (No.  6).  Also, 
a  light-colored  brother.  No.  3  (II  7)  of  the  foregoing  father,  and  his 
medium-colored  wife  (No.  2),  sister  of  No.  5,  and  their  two  children: 
III  18  (No.  16)  and  19  (No.  9).  Also  a  light-colored  woman  II  9 
(No.  i)  who  is  a  sister  to  the  two  foregoing  wives  and  her  six 
children  by  a  light-colored  man;  viz..  Ill  20  (No.  11),  III  21 
(No.  14),  III  22  (No.  10),  III  23  (No.  12),  III  24  (No.  13),  III  25 
(No.  15). 

Key  to  persons  in  the  photograph;  1,  II  9,  sister  to  2  and  5  and  mother  to 
ID,  II,  12,  13,  14,  15.  2,  II  7,  sister  to  i  and  5,  wife  to  3  and  mother  to  9  and 
16.  3,  II  7,  brother  to  4,  husband  to  2,  and  father  to  9  and  16.  4,  brother  to 
3,  husband  to  5  and  father  to  6,  7,  8,  and  17.  5,  sister  to  i  and  2,  wife  to  4, 
and  mother  to  6,  7,  8,  17.  6,  III  17;  7,  III  13;  8,  III  15;  9,  III  19;  10,  III  22; 
II,  III  20;  12,  III  23;  13,  III  24;  14,  III  21;  15,  III  25;  16,  III  18;  17,  III  16. 

Fig.  13.  Part  of  the  Bermuda  pedigree  33,  L.  family,  including  a  light-colored 
mother  I  i  (M)  and  her  seven  children. 


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HEREDITY  OF  SKIN  COLOR 


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